Abstract
This paper discusses the use of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR) in examining archeological remains. The author includes an application of these methods. Pictures and graphs are included.

From the Paper
"There are many ways one can study archaeological materials. This paper will focus on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR). All are part of a process that helps to identify many materials, which in turn provide answers to parts of the past. They are all very useful tools for the examination of archaeological artifacts and many other things."

Tags:electron, infrared, ir, magnetic, microscope, readiography, resonance, scanning, science, scientific

Abstract
Radioactive dating is the process of determining the age of rocks and other specimens from the decay of their radioactive elements. By applying this information, geologists are able to decipher the 4.6-billion-year history of the earth. The paper introduces the history of this type of dating in chronological order. It discusses other issues related to radioactive dating such as Carbon-14 dating, fission track dating, Potassium Argon Dating, the Rubidium-Strontium method, lead-alpha age and debated ideas of radioactive dating.

From the Paper
"Cosmic rays from the sun strike nitrogen 14 atoms in the earth's atmosphere and cause nitrogen atoms to lose a proton making it a carbon isotope this then turns into radioactive carbon 14, which combines with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. All living things are in equilibrium with the atmosphere, and the radioactive carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and used by green plants. Then the radioactive carbon dioxide gets passed on through the plants into the food chain and the carbon cycle. All living things contain a constant ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 of about 1 in a trillion. The amount of carbon 14 lost in a species is continually replenished as long as it still takes in food and oxygen. At death, the exchange of carbon 14 ceases and any that is left in the tissues of the organism begins to decay to Nitrogen 14, this is not replenished by any new C-14. The change in the Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 ratio is the basis for dating this dating technique. The half-life is so short (5730 years) that this method can only be used on materials less than 70,000 years old. A lot of archaeological dating uses this method. It is also very useful in attempting to date remnants of the ice ages (Pleistocene epoch.)"

Tags:Marie, Pierre, Curie, Clair, Patterson, U, 235, atom

Abstract
This paper examines the causes of the decline of the ancient Egyptian civilization and argues that a number of factors played a role. Among these are a shift from economic prosperity to poverty, the weakening power of the pharaoh (related to the rise of the priesthood and royal instability) and continuous warfare with neighbouring societies.

From the Paper
"From the Egyptian state's origins in the Old Kingdom, circa 2575 B.C., it flourished in relative isolation from other civilizations. It was protected by the Mediterranean in the north, the desert in the east and west, and by an "ethnic frontier" in the south (Adams, 1984, p. 38). During this time of remoteness, the Egyptian state built complex pyramid structures, developed a unique religion and established a political system based on the supremacy of the pharaoh and a hereditary bureaucracy (Fagan, 2004, p. 385). However, the prosperity and stability of the Old Kingdom (circa 2575 to 2180 B.C.) could not last forever, and since several succeeding pharaohs lacked leadership Egypt entered a period in which the central power of the government declined and local leaders became independent rulers within their own territories (Fagan, 2004, p. 389). In conjunction with this decline in power, came a prolonged drought cycle, but this led to improvements in agriculture and eventually to a rapid increase in population, though famines continued to strike for over three hundred years. Trade networks were vastly expanded during the Middle Kingdom (2134 to 1640 B.C.) and parts of the desert lands of Nubia were conquered, the first signs of imperial ambitions (Fagan, 2004, p. 390). The second intermediate period, occurring between 1640 and 1530 B.C., brought political instability and economic disorder to Egypt once again. However, in the same way that the first intermediate period brought improvements to the Egyptian civilization, this new period of instability brought several innovations that preserved Egypt's role in the eastern Mediterranean world (Fagan, 2004, p. 391). The New Kingdom, 1530 to 1070 B.C., brought with it periods of extensive wealth, an expansive empire, and political stability, though these qualities were quickly dissolved with the last of the long-lived pharaohs Rameses III (Fagan, 2004, p. 391; Ibid, p. 395). The last years of the Egyptian dynasties were marked by a "succession of short-lived, sometimes competing and generally unremarkable kings" (Rice, 1997, p. 1980). After this time political weakness opened the door to the rapidly evolving civilizations crowding Egypt's borders. By about 1000 B.C. the country was bankrupt and the influence of other ancient civilizations, Assyrians and Persians followed by the Greeks, came to dominate the Nile Valley (Clayton, 1994, p. 173). The decline of the Egyptian civilization resulted from the complex interplay of several factors including economic conditions, a weakening of the pharaohs? power, and warfare with other complex societies."

Tags:africa, ancient, anthropology, archaeology, civilization, decline, east, egypt, history, middle, pharaoh, societies

Abstract
A discussion of the life and contribution of Edward Gibbon. The paper gives a brief background of the historian and then summarizes the major points raised in the book, including Christianity, the rise of the empire, the Ceasars and the reasons for the fall of the great empire.

From the Paper
"The British historian, Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) is well-known for his monumental masterpiece, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". His major accomplishment in this book was that he articulates the basic causations of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in his famous book. Many people would argue that Gibbon's main point of the causation was the triumph of the barbarism and the church; but according to his writing, although he mentions those two factors a lot, the internal problems, which are the failure of the emperor and the domination of the Praetorian Guards, were the causation to the fall of the Empire. Gibbon has been given credits on his brilliant critiques on the history, and his modern way of writing history, but he has paid too much attention on the wars than the social factors, and he overemphasizes the influence of the historical figures whereas neglected the function of the mass. In addition to it, he condemns too much on the Christianity with out an impartial judgment, which draws him on the waves of the critiques. However, his criticism, his huge references, and his modern way of composing historiography outweigh his weakness in this work, and make him one of the greatest historians in human history."

Tags:rome, caesar, christian, failure, fall

Abstract
This paper analyzes a study done of the Glenrose Cannery Site in the 1970s. The various excavations at the site between 1969 and 1973 are discussed in detail, and the results are analyzed and evaluated.

From the paper:

"The analysis of fish, pollen, shellfish, mammalian and avian remains and artifacts from the site were studied to find "the origins of the densely populated culturally complex, maritime adaptation of the Pacific Northwest Coast", and "the origin of the Locarna Bach and Marpole phases in the last millenium B.C." (Matson, 1976) Little is known about this and views range from Asiatio origins to local development. (Matson, 1976) "Thus is was hoped that the investigation of the Glenrose midden would shed some light on the origins of the unique Northwest Coast pattern by detailing the subsistence strategies related to pre-Locarno material on the edge of the Fraser Delta.""

Tags:archaeology, article, cannery, critical, criticizing, glenrose, mni, nisp, paleoenvironmental, reconstruction, review, site, zooarchaeology

Abstract
This paper discusses the emergence of figural representation in Greek funerary pottery of the geometric period in a tradition which previously had none. The writer provides the historical and cultural background for the subject and explains the reason why this period is known as geometric. One of the earliest examples showing a figural composition, the Dipylon Amphora, and a slightly later work, the Geometric Krater, are discussed in detail. The writer explains that, although the figural representations on funerary pottery are visual windows into Greek life, belief, and culture, they do not provide sufficient information to enable archaeologists to determine how and why figural representation developed and then evolved in a Greek funerary context.

From the Paper
"By the time of the 8th century BCE, well into the Geometric period, Greek society provides numerous examples of an increasingly sophisticated social order, which included the arts. A social stratification meant that the wealthy could afford or command some truly impressive artistic works, including funerary pottery (Kleiner 101). The Geometric period is the earliest phase of "Greek" civilization, and is so named because of the abstract patterns that decorate many manufactured objects, especially pottery (Moore, 13). In the Geometric period we observe the first figural compositions since the Mycenaean palace destructions, occurring sometime around 1100 (13). Found artefacts in the Geometric are primarily funerary or dedicatory, and occur in relation to the rise of a "temple economy.""

Tags:myth, Eleusis Vase, Homeric Athenian, burial custom, bronze soldier value

Abstract
Using historical evidence of cannibalism existence, this paper identifies different forms and practices, and explains the motives for such behaviors.

From the Paper
"For millions of years, the majority of humans and their ancestors around the world have eaten meat, derived from a countless number of animals. However, the majority of these people have avoided one particular kind of meat: human flesh. For a human to knowingly eat the flesh of his own kind has been taboo to the most extreme definition of the term. Even the thought of it provokes a deep-rooted, enculturated repulsiveness that is so powerful it has actually prevented modern humans from eating remains of dead people for the sole purpose of survival (Barker, Hulme, and Iversen 1998:37). In other words, they would rather die than eat the meat of another person. The general practice of eating human flesh, anthropophagy, commonly referred to as cannibalism, has always been a subject full of controversy and debate. Hundreds of scientific studies have been published on the subject, but few have focused on the anthropological reasons for its supposed occurrence. In order to understand the true nature of cannibalism, it is necessary to examine it from a number of different perspectives. First, the historical evidence indicating that it took place must be carefully analyzed and interpreted. Second, the different forms of cannibalism must be identified and defined, and examples of their historical presence must be cited. Lastly, the motives of each type need to be explained, detailing the various tendencies of cannibalistic peoples and their practices. Only then will the appropriate significance of cannibalism and its existence become clear."

Tags:ancient, anthropophagy, archaeology, cannibal, cannibalism, culture, endocannibalism, exocannibalism

Abstract
This paper begins by providing a brief geological history of the mountain, separating it into nine different periods. It then examines various lava types found in the area. The paper moves to modern day when the first actual threat was realized for eruption. It discusses the process of eruption and the different types of blast - lateral blast (direct blast zone, channelized blast zone, seared zone); vertical blast and pyroclastic flows. It concludes with an analysis of the aftermath and its effect on wildlife in the area.

From the Paper
"On May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helen's in southwestern Washington erupted with a massive explosion. Leading up to this day was increasingly intense earthquake activity. There were also lots of relatively weak eruptions and many locations of minuet gas discharge. The devastating impact of the suddenly unleashed volcanic energy caused the worst volcanic and geological disaster in the recorded history of the United States."

Tags:lava, volcano, pyroclastic, zone, blast

Abstract
This paper examines how the Egyptians were a civilization that impressionably influenced Western society and they did so through their artwork, architecture and literature, which permeated Western society?s thought and created an architectural intrigue which still exists in present day. Incorporating a vast amount of primary and secondary resources, this paper is a detailed analysis of the Egyptian legacy.

From the Paper
"Egyptian literature varies widely including Pyramid texts, which were named for their location - in the pyramid tombs of the pharaohs, stories, hymns, wisdom texts, poems, love songs, biographical and historical texts, scientific treatises, and mathematical and medical texts. The Pyramid texts are the oldest and most popular form of Egyptian literature. They coincide with the rise of pyramids in the Old Kingdom. They served as a way to guide the tomb owner to the afterlife, enchanting him with incantations to secure his safe passage, sometimes describing his achievements on earth in order to gain favor with the gods."

Tags:architecture, egyptology, humanities, literature

Abstract
The paper introduces archaeology, and explains that the concept of dating is central to the science of archaeology. Two broad categories of dating, relative and absolute, are introduced, and four major specific types of dating are presented to the reader; stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. Each of the four methods are discussed in great detail, each with a closing paragraph devoted to the underlying problems with that particular method. For example, the section on stratigraphy begins with a brief history of the method itself, and introduces such concepts as the law of superposition, temporal sequences of data within stratified deposits, context evaluation, and determining age through the relative position of superimposed artifacts. The negatives of stratigraphy are then discussed, and include deformation, overlapping and reverse stratigraphy, and the method is evaluated on the whole. This format is then applied to the other three types of dating discussed. Finally, a concluding paragraph states that although the four types of dating discussed are infinitely valuable to archaeologists all over the world, there are still problems associated with each that need to be accounted for when using them to address the age of fossilized remains and other artifacts.

From the Paper
"Archaeology is the study of past human cultures, and archaeologists must uncover and interpret material remains in order to reconstruct past ways of life. To understand the purposes of these remains, Archaeologists have the task of constructing a chronology of prehistory, using various dating methods. "Without knowing the age of materials, little can be said about the activity that made them part of the site (David L. Webster, Susan Toby Evans & William T. Sanders, 1993: 128)." Dating is defined as the placement in time of events relative to one another or to any established scale of temporal measurement (Jeffrey S. Dean, 1981: 375). Dating methods used by Archaeologist incorporate the scientific method and have the advantages of objectification, application to isolated cultural sequences, and an expanded span of human prehistory for which an absolute chronology can be built (Keith Brannigan, 1974: 100-101). Scientific methods of dating are invaluable for the prehistoric periods and have revolutionized the archaeologists' ideas about the absolute chronology of the prehistoric culture sequence (Brannigan, 1974: 101), yet each of these scientific methods has many difficulties. Dating techniques fall into two categories relative and absolute and include the following: seriation, ceramic dating, potassium argon dating, thermoluminescence dating, archaeomagnetic dating, fission track dating, stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. This paper will discuss the latter four methods, with an emphasis on the shortcomings of each."

Tags:absolute, age, archaeology, artifacts, chronology, cultures, dating, endrochronology, fossils, history, human, hydration, measurement, obsidian, past, prehistoric, radiocarbon, relative, remains, stratigraphy, temporal, time