Abstract
The Parthenon (447-32 BCE) was a crowning glory of Athenian civilization of the classical era and, what is more important, it was intended as such at the time. Thus, nearly 2,500 years later, it is possible to view the building as incorporating all of what the Athenians saw as beautiful, sacred and of civic importance in architecture. The paper shows that as its overwhelming position and the nature of its sculptural decoration make clear, it was the focal point of the religious-civic identity of the Athenian polis. The paper describes how the Parthenon housed the great statue of Athena Parthenos, was the main building in the complex of temples dedicated to the gods on the sacred rock of the Acropolis, depicted some version of the most important Athenian religious ceremony (the Panathenaic procession and festival) and loomed over the city as a reminder and a promise of Athenian greatness.

From the Paper
"But there was also a contradiction in being expected to achieve the perfection of the Doric order on a much larger scale, for which adjustments had to be made to the greater number of columns. As Boardman points out, however, the wider facades lent the building a "reassuring breadth which is enhanced by the way its proportions then seem to match those" of the Acropolis on which it stands (112). But this breadth might have been oppressive in its effects if the architects had not devised a means of avoiding too great a visual equivalence between the rock and the temple. Their solution was a very subtle curvature of the stylobate, and the rest of the floor, which is also reflected in the entablature. This also affects the columns which "lean slightly in while the upperworks [that they support] lean slightly out" (Boardman 112). This gives the entire facade a "pyramiding movement" to which all the external lines contribute; ever so subtly, therefore, the columns' inward inclination lends itself to a slight triangular effect that is enhanced by the surmounting pyramid of the pediment (Martin 292)."

Tags:Piraeus, Phidias, Iktinos, Kallikrates

Abstract
This paper contains a report on the book, including the author's thesis, evidence she uses to prove her thesis, and how convincing a case she makes. It explains how the author analyzes how ancient civilizations of Asia and Europe expanded from common places of origin. It also questions where these Caucasians came from. It explains that Elizabeth Wayland Barber, an archaeologist at Occidental College, asks herself those questions and begins a fascinating journey along the Silk Road into prehistoric time.

From the Paper
"Barber's book chronicles the mummies found in and around the Urumchi area of Eurasia. The mummies are quite interesting for several reasons, including the vivid and beautiful clothing they wore, and the fact that they appeared to be distinctly Caucasian, rather than Asian or Mongoloid, which one would expect from the area they were found. Early in the book she raises many questions about these fascinating mummies, including where they came from, why they were entombed where they were, and even speculatively, what language they may have spoken. While Barber's archeological specialty is textiles, which she does cover extensively, she takes the study of the mummies much further in this book, as one reviewer noted. "In the process, she takes us through the entire process of modern archeology -- comparative linguistics, tracking down ancient original sources, studying the climate of the time, carbon dating, following artifacts as they move through different cultures..." (St. Philip). Clearly, Barber hopes to solve the mystery of these tantalizing mummies, and take the reader along with her as she makes her own voyage of discovery. What she finds is both fascinating and amazing."

Tags:prehistoric, archeologist, mummy, civilization, caucasian, europe, asia

Abstract
This paper discusses the Calyx-Krater vase found at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. The vase's depiction of a scene and ideas from Homer's "Iliad" is the focus of the paper. However, the history and coloring techniques of Greek vases are also discussed in detail. Illustrations are included with the paper.

From the Paper
"One of the best sources for Greek Mythology is the paintings on Greek Vases. Stories of the gods and heroes are retold again and again in this medium, providing a two dimensional visual reference for the legends. Scenes showing the action of Homeric poems were common, as well as scenes depicting the ideas put forth in these writings. It is the scene of Sarpedon's death that is depicted, yet it is the idea of a hero's death that is inferred on the Calyx-Krater of the Metropolitan Museum."

Tags:greece, homer, iliad, hero

Abstract
This essay discusses the importance of women in ancient Egyptian society in Gay Robin's book "Women in Ancient Egypt". The author examines strong royal women such as Nefertiti, and Nefertiti, and discusses women in Egyptian art. The paper also looks at the subordination of females in Egyptian society, but also how they were honored by their families.

From the Paper:

"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum, reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."??

From the Paper
"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum , reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."

Tags:nefertiti, nefertari, goddess, robins, queen, wife, afterlife

Abstract
This paper traces the history of the architectural form and cultural function of the amphitheatre from its modest beginning in ancient Greece through to the Roman influenced theatre of today. It examines how, although some aspects of their design and function are debatable because so little of their physical structure exists today, Greek theaters can be chronologically classified into three categories: The early Athenian, Hellenistic and Graeco-Roman. It discusses how all of these theaters could be divided into essentially three parts: the theatron (or auditorium), the orchestra and the skene (or scene building) and how these standards developed over time.

From the Paper
"In its simplest form the orchestra of a theater is simply a circular plot of land designated as a place for dance and this idea defines the orchestra employed during this time. It was circular in shape with a diameter of about 66 feet and was believed to be a locus for supernatural powers. An altar (or thymele), described as "a short drum of marble decorated with low-relief carvings of garlands and satyrs, or other Greek icons? was usually erected in the epicenter of the orchestra. It was primarily used prior to performances for sacrifices in honor of the god Dionysus, however plays with religious content often incorporated the altar into the performance. A level surface area, raised one foot from the orchestra and situated below the skene, termed the proscenium, served as the area in which the majority of the dramatic action transpired."

Tags:ancient, architecture, building, drama, roman, rome, stage, skene, orchestra

Abstract
This paper focuses on the new evolved state of human beings where we are actually questioning our origins and how we came to be. The paper focuses on the different stages in the evolution of man, providing examples of fossil discoveries to show how humans have changed over time.

From the Paper
"With our knowledge of geological processes we are now able to determine the biological and cultural development of the species "Homo sapiens," or human beings. A large number of human fossil bones and teeth have been found at various places throughout the world along with tools of stone, bone, and wood. As a result of these discoveries, a picture of human evolution during the past 4 to 5 million years has emerged."

Tags:africa, archaeology, creation, darwin, darwinian, development, devloping, evolution, evolve, evolving, fossil, fossils, homo, man, migration, primate, sapien, sapiens, science

Abstract
This paper examines several of the many treasuries found at the sites of Olympia and Delphi. The deeper meaning of these structures is explored, including the motives behind their construction.

From the Paper
"During the eighth century B.C., conditions in Greece contributed to a sense of Panhellenism among the various poleis. There was a general increase in cultural unity, a phenomenon which corresponds to more intense contact with the Eastern world. Such contact would have made obvious the differences between Greek and non-Hellenic cultures. At this time, there was a rise in religious sanctuaries and festivals which, rather than being local, included all Greeks. Two of the most famous Panhellenic sanctuaries were of Zeus at Olympia and Apollo at Delphi. Festivals which were sometimes held at these sites served to enhance the individual poleis by competing against each other in various contests."

Tags:apollo, delphi, olympia, panhellenism, zeus

Abstract
This paper discusses the way that tomb construction developed and changed in Egypt. The paper looks at three periods - The Old Kingdom (c2780-2260 BC); Middle Kingdom (c1997 -1650 BC) and New Kingdom (1552-1069 BC) - in order to compare the methods.

From the Paper
"Because of the incredible power and authority of the king at this time, his tomb was designed to exemplify his grandeur as well as serve as the final resting-place for his body and earthly possessions. In addition, the tomb complex was also the focal point of the king's cult for ritual prayer and for worship. Unfortunately, the roles of the king's tomb proved to nullify each other; the builders tried to "hide" the king's body and possessions while at the same time allowing the public in to worship him at the same time. As a result, the whereabouts of the king's treasure were common knowledge and over time each of these tombs was stripped of everything of value, not excluding the king's corpse itself? "

Tags:architecture, bahri, chefren, cheops, dier, egypt, el, giza, hatshepsut, khafre, khufu, kingdom, menkaure, middle, mycerinus, new, old, sakkara, tomb

Abstract
This paper examines how a society's ideals are reflected in its sculpture, through the example of comparing Egyptian, Greek and Roman Sculpture. The author describes the characteristics of these societies as seen through their art and that their sculptures are a reflection on the perspective on the same world.

From the Paper
"Different cultures see the world in different ways. Religion, society, and even politics, shape our views, and give form to our human environment. Architecture, music, literature, dress all are visible manifestations of a people's values. This is no less true in the realm of sculpture. A religious people will create works of art that express its most deeply held spiritual beliefs; a cerebral people, sculptures that capture humankind's highest ideals, while the politically minded turn out statues and busts that represent their world's movers and shakers. Styles can range from the formal and the symbolic, to the ideal and the real. Each serves its cultural purpose. As all peoples have done, the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans produced sculptures that testify to the beliefs of their respective societies."

Tags:egyot, greece, rome, italy, culture, cultures, society, religion, human, environemnt, architecture, music, literature, dress, religious, people, spiritual

Abstract
A discussion of the life and contribution of Edward Gibbon. The paper gives a brief background of the historian and then summarizes the major points raised in the book, including Christianity, the rise of the empire, the Ceasars and the reasons for the fall of the great empire.

From the Paper
"The British historian, Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) is well-known for his monumental masterpiece, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". His major accomplishment in this book was that he articulates the basic causations of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in his famous book. Many people would argue that Gibbon's main point of the causation was the triumph of the barbarism and the church; but according to his writing, although he mentions those two factors a lot, the internal problems, which are the failure of the emperor and the domination of the Praetorian Guards, were the causation to the fall of the Empire. Gibbon has been given credits on his brilliant critiques on the history, and his modern way of writing history, but he has paid too much attention on the wars than the social factors, and he overemphasizes the influence of the historical figures whereas neglected the function of the mass. In addition to it, he condemns too much on the Christianity with out an impartial judgment, which draws him on the waves of the critiques. However, his criticism, his huge references, and his modern way of composing historiography outweigh his weakness in this work, and make him one of the greatest historians in human history."

Tags:rome, caesar, christian, failure, fall