Abstract
The writer gives a background of the Big Bang Theory and explores the theory as an explanation of the beginning of the universe. However, since the 1940s and the introduction of this theory, scientists have raised questions as to the validity of the explanation and continue to research other ways in which the universe might have been created. The paper traces some of this research.

From the Paper
"One such area of research has been the model for the expansion of the universe and so for the Big Bang. One theory offered to explain this is the inflationary model, and over the last two decades what has happened to this model shows some of the ways scientific truth is pursued and fine-tuned. Alan Guth developed the idea in 1979 and wrote it in his notebook. Inflation was the name for the mechanism Guth proposed for igniting cosmic expansion and which might have operated for as little as 10-35 seconds. Still, it would have whipped up all the matter and energy in the universe and laid the seeds for galaxies and galaxy clusters in that brief time, and in that time the universe would have blossomed exponentially from as small as 10-24 centimeters across to perhaps the size of a pumpkin. Michael Turner of the University of Chicago describes inflation as "the most important idea in cosmology since that of the big bang itself.""

Tags:universe, creation, science, astronomy, research

Abstract
This is an informative paper on what exactly a black hole is and what scientists have theorized about black holes. The paper examines the formation of black holes, past research on black holes and pondering questions still unanswered today.

From the Paper
"Ever since you were old enough to know what the sky, moon and stars were, you have always imagined what is actually up there? One of the most fascinating ideas of all is the mysterious and scary thought of a BLACK HOLE! This is perfectly normal because even today scientists are still pondering over that same question - what is a black hole and does it exist? Theories that at one time seemed reasonable are now laughed at, our skies hold an infinite space which we will never be able to explore, as a result, our questions will be infinite as well."

Tags:astronomy, black, holes, science, stars, universe, infinity

Abstract
This paper details how Galileo Galilei affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.

From the Paper
"Galileo Galilei was a mathematician, an astronomer, and a physicist who made several significant contributions to modern scientific thought. During his life, he made many scientific discoveries, often in contradiction with the centuries-old ideas of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These contradictions led to great conflict with the Catholic Church; however, he emerged as a symbol to others who oppose unyielding authority and champion scientific progress. As James Reston's biography Galileo makes clear, Galileo is a historical figure who affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church."

Tags:astronomy, galilei, galileo, mathematics, physics, science

Abstract
This paper looks at black holes in terms of the most prevalent theories. It first, defines what we have come to understand as a black hole. It then touches upon how black holes are documented and measured. Thirdly, it examines the black hole believed to be at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. Finally, it explores the prevalent hypothesis that black holes are in fact the genesis of all galaxies.

From the Paper
"Gravity is the cause of black holes. A black hole is the unlimited and irresistible force of ultimate gravity in the universe. To understand how a black hole is created, it is helpful to understand a bit about the basics of gravity. Imagine shooting an arrow into the sky. The harder you shoot the arrow, the farther it will go in attempting to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity. If you were to use a big enough bow with enough force you could help the arrow reach speeds exceeding 7miles per second which is the escape velocity for the Earth. Escape velocity indicates the minimum speed necessary to beat the pull of the planet's gravitational core (Cowen , 390). The strength of the gravitational pull of the core is determined by the density and mass of the core. The denser and more massive that the core is, the greater the gravitational pull. If you were to drop a ball to the center of the earth, the gravitational forces would crush it into an ever shrinking volume requiring even greater amounts of force to help it reach escape velocity. As the greatest theoretical speed for any physical object in the universe is that of light (which travels at 186 thousand miles per second) a mass large and dense enough can actually exert so much force that not even light can achieve escape velocity. The object that can pull even light into it and keep it from escaping is a black hole."

Tags:earth, gravity, milky, way, galaxy

Abstract
The paper defines black holes and explains what they are made up of. The paper explores common misconceptions surrounding black holes, as well as other mysteries. Finally the paper examines theories regarding how black holes eventually end.

From the Paper
"Black holes, one of space's greatest phenomenons, appear to be tremendous concentrations of matter, usually at the center of a galaxy; however, smaller back holes are possible. The matter is in the form of neutrons, protons, and electrons, tightly packed together by their mutual gravitational attraction. The beautifully descriptive name comes from the fact that light cannot exit from a Black hole. They are suspected to form in the death and collapse of a star that began with more than10 times the sun's mass (those with less mass become white dwarfs or neutron stars)."

Tags:galaxy, Albert Einstein, radiation

Abstract
This paper discusses how the creation of the universe has been a controversial topic since its inception and how scientists now accept the 'big bang theory' as the most likely origin of the universe. It also looks at how there are other theories, such as the steady state theory,
that also endeavor to explain our existence. The paper attempts to show that although both theories share certain bases such as the violation of the first law of thermodynamics, the big bang theory is the more probable theory as to how the universe formed.

From the Paper
"The Big Bang is believed to have happened 13.7 billion years ago, marking the beginning of space and time. It suggested that the universe violently exploded into existence, and it continued to expand and cool, condensing and growing in both size and temperature, eventually forming the universe we know today. To this day, the universe continues to expand. The Big Bang theory has quite a bit of evidence backing it up, such as Hubble's Law- suggesting that the universe is constantly expanding and compacting through time. Or the discovery of Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, both radio-astronomers, that 2.735 Kelvin CMB radiation can be found in the universe, a leftover of the Big Bang. Also, the sheer amount of large 'light elements' such as hydrogen and helium in combination to form deuterium, which is believed to be created at the Big Bang. This evidence led scientists to accept the Big Bang theory as the most probable origin of the universe.
"

Tags:perfect cosmological principle First Law of Thermodynamics energy spectrum

Abstract
This paper covers the following topics: what are supernovae; the history of the supernovae; supernovae in our Galaxy: how they are formed; nomenclature; how they affect us.

From the Paper
" A supernova is the cataclysmic explosion of a big mass star, which releases a huge quantity of light instantaneously, occurring approximately twice per century. Astronomers have been observing supernovae in our skies since the times of Christian Huygens, Simon Marius, Messier, Brache and Kepler. Fritz Zwicky was the first to use the term supernova to describe lights that were much brighter than any other star or planetary body visible in the sky. "

Tags:dwarves, magnetic, remnants, solar, wind

Abstract
Intelligent systems are becoming increasingly important in deep space missions, especially missions to Mars. This paper covers three intelligent technologies: (1) The intelligent space ship 'Deep Space One' and its autonomous navigation system; (2) The Mars global surveyor and the deep space terminal and (3) The 'Sojourner' and Rocky 7 and 8 rovers.
The paper includes illustrations.

From the Paper
"Deep Space One marked the first mission of NASA's New Millennium Program which is aimed at testing highly advanced technologies for low-cost planetary missions [3]. The key component being tested by the mission was its AutoNav system. AutoNav is made up of three main tools: the Nav Main (simply Nav), the Nav Executive (NavExec) and the Nav Real-Time (NavRT). Nav and NavRT have architectures very similar to those of expert systems where decisions are based on algorithms built on sets of well defined rules. As well its decisions are supported by information gathered autonomously. In that respect it is very similar to the path planning software used in planetary rovers, which will be discussed later."

Tags:computer, nasa, robotics, viking

Abstract
This paper focuses on the history and the discovery of the ninth planet in the Solar System, Pluto, and its lone moon, Charon. The paper discusses various theories about what originally propelled astronomers to search for this mysterious planet, known as Planet X, and how its name Pluto finally came about after its discovery.

From the Paper
"John Murray, an astronomer from Open University in the U.K. proposes a theory in which two large objects may gravitationally affect the orbits of long period comets. These two objects would have to be about 32,000 AU from the Sun and extremely massive, about the size of Jupiter. John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette proposes a similar theory. His involves two to three Jupiter sized objects orbiting at about 2.3 trillion miles from the Sun. He says that their gravity is responsible for the deflection of roughly 25% of the known 82 Oort Cloud comets into the inner solar system. Matese says that these massive objects do not necessarily have to be planets; they may be undetected brown dwarfs undetected because the IRAS (Infrared Astronomical Satellite) of the 1980s was not sensitive enough to distinguish an individual brown dwarf against the galactic plane."

Tags:astronomy, hershel, outer, physics, space, Camille, Flammarian

Abstract
This paper deals with Galileo's arguments with church officials, and his attempt to reconcile his scientific findings with teachings from the bible. Emphasis is placed on Galileo's conviction that scientific truth and the biblical message are not contradictory, but can complement each other. Historical and religious figures are discussed with respect to their influence on Galileo.

From the Paper
"Perhaps the most relevant and convincing argument that Galileo posed to clear up the relationship between
scientific truth and the bible was that the bible was often unclear and ambiguous (GAL 214, 206, 199), which could cause the true meaning to be misunderstood by people attempting to translate its meaning. An example of this posed by Galileo was from the commonly known story of God stopping the sun in the sky to allow Joshua to win a battle."

Tags:bible, church, dogma, galileo, religion, renaissance, scientific, truth, -, LO, TOV