Abstract
This paper discusses the physiological makeup of the frog and then describes the nature of an experiment that examines the physiological processes involved in muscle contraction in frogs. The paper first descrbes the materials and methods of the experiment and then gives a detailed analysis of the results, including corresponding graphs, charts, and figures to illustrate the data.

From the Paper
"Moreover, looking at Figure 3, at an interval of 20 ms, the muscle has not even gone through one contraction before being re-stimulated, whereas by 400 ms it has already gone through several contraction-relaxation cycles, and might be showing signs of fatigue. However, Figure 4 actually shows a slight increase in the maximum force between 200 and 400 ms. This is likely due to the fact that at 200 ms, the fibre had just completed one cycle and was in a refractory period, whereas by 400 ms, any refractory period was significantly weaker (Suzuki, et al. 2004). Evidently, muscle fatigue is not a major factor until 500 ms (see Figure 5), leaving refractory periods as the main detriment of contraction force before that time period. At the same time, the physiological significance of the gastrocnemius must be considered (Animal Physiology I Laboratory Manual, Lab 5). Since it is a heavily used, and extremely powerful muscle, the time at which it achieves (and sustains) its maximum force is one of the longest. Most vertebrate skeletal muscles would begin to fatigue earlier than 500 ms (Edman et al, 2002)."

Tags:experiment, physiological processes, skeletal muscle, frogs neuromuscular nerves

Abstract
This paper looks at Atropine the plant as drug and medicine under the following headings: Discovery, Extraction from its Natural Sources, Uses, Side Effects, Description of Structure.

From the Paper
"The medicinal properties of Atropine were discovered through Shamans or "Medicine Men". It is not known exactly when it was discovered, but the first recorded use of it was in 1676 when a group of soldiers in Jamestown went insane upon ingestion of the plant that contains Atropine along with other Tropane alkaloids. In 1968, over-the-counter remedies for asthmatic difficulties were banned after people began to use them recreationally."

Tags:analysis, drug, medicine

Abstract
Examination of Fragile X Syndrome from a genetic, neurological, and neuro-psychological perspective. Includes current research on this disorder. It provides information about the characteristics of the disorder, treatment available, and medical research performed. It also examines how this disorder affects a sufferer's daily life.

Table of Contents
I. Introduction
i. Physical characteristics
ii. Behavioural and non-physical characteristics
II. Neuronal Development
i. Normal development
ii. Development in FraX
III. Fragile X Mental Retardation Gene (FMR1)
i. FMR1 and FraX
ii. Gender differences
IV. Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP)
i. FMR1 mutation and FMRP
ii. FMRP and synaptic plasticity
iii. Evidence from animal models and non-human studies
iv. FMRP as mRNA-binding protein
V. Molecular-Genetic Basis of Fragile X Syndrome
i. Normal development
ii. Moderate FMRP deficiency
iii. Severe FMRP deficiency
iv. Mechanism of FMRP in mediating neuronal development
VI. FMRP and Development of Fragile X: Hypotheses
i. FMRP and synapse formation during development
ii. FMRP and translation at postsynaptic site
VII. FRAXE and FMR2
i. Mutation and phenotype
VIII. Brain Abnormalities
i. Evidence from structural magnetic resonance imaging studies
IX. Neuro-psychological Profiles
i. Males with FraX
ii. Females with FraX
X. Current Research
i. Cortisol and stress-related behavior in children with FraX
ii. Neurocognition in female permutation carriers
iii. FRAXE and obsessive-compulsive disorder
iv. Fragile X permutation and neurologic disorders
XI. Future Directions of Research
i. Potential areas of exploration
ii. Treatment
XII. References

From the Paper
"Fragile X syndrome (FraX) is the single most common form of inherited mental impairment (Glaser et al., 2003). Studies place prevalence rates of the disorder at approximately 1 in 2000-5000 live births, affecting as many as 1 in 4000 females and twice as many males (Churchill et al., 2002). It is second only to Down syndrome as a cause of mental impairment and appears in children of all ethnic, racial, and socio-economic backgrounds (Fragile X Association, 2003). The pace of research into the genetic, molecular, anatomical, neuropsychological, and psychosocial factors underlying this disorder has grown at an exponential rate in recent years. FraX is described by Nobel Laureate and co-discoverer of the DNA double-helix, Dr. James D. Watson, as the "first major triumph of the genome project" (FRAXA Research Foundation, 2002), and its potential as a paradigm of study by which to understand normal and disordered processes of development is immeasurable."

Tags:developmental, disorders, genetics, neurology, neuropsychology, psychology

Abstract
This paper considers the concern about biotechnology and whether it should be embraced as a miracle cure for the world's hunger problems or rejected as a potentially dangerous activity that does more harm than good. The paper attempts to determine the value of this technology by examining the problems experienced by Monsanto Corporation and similar companies that are in the business of genomics.

From the Paper
"There is one question that must be answered first and foremost before it is even possible to look at the issue of genetic engineering: what exactly does genetic engineering refer to? Generally, genetic engineering is the act of putting a gene from one organism into another. In effect, scientists are creating organisms with a different genome than the ones normally found in nature. Specifically, researchers must first isolate a gene " a segment of DNA that codes for protein " and then clone that DNA many times; that segment of cloned DNA, the transgene, is then inserted into another organism with the new DNA integrating itself into the host genome followed by expression of the gene and production of protein coded for by that gene. By and large, genetic engineering is a trial and error art, not one based on precision. Some geneticists use a technique where the modified gene is blasted into the cells using a molecular shotgun. It is very difficult to determine where a gene will end up once placed into a cell (Dressel & Suzuki, 1999, p. 104)."

Tags:genetic, make-up, ogranism, mutation, plants, human, consumption, gefs, genetically, engineered

Abstract
This paper takes a look at the concept of cell membranes and molecules and discusses how they relate to the controversial issue of human cloning. It expands on the ethical issues which human cloning have arisen. The writer then discusses the advantages and disadvantages of cloning and the legal problems related to the issue.

From the Paper
"The subject of human cloning has recently become controversial because scientists are already technologically ready to undertake this revolutionary step into human reproduction. There are many proponents of human cloning who find justifying arguments to start to clone humans. They argue that cloning would alleviate trauma and grief for those who have lost a relative in an accident because a "replacement" could then be created. Further, infertile couples could use cloning techniques to have children; as a result, human cloning would terminate genetic faults in people. Additionally, people who would like to have an image of themselves to live forever could preserve their lives by creating their own clones. Human cloning in general would contribute to research and experiments on human body and scientific limits."

Tags:biology, cell, clone, ethical, law, life, molecules, science

Abstract
This paper examines the novel mechanism of disease transmittal in prions as well as the diseases themselves (mad cow disease and Creutzfeld-Jacobs disease). Functions of normal prions are also discussed. The paper also examines how prions are devoid of nucleic acids, and thus carry no information other than their tertiary structure.

From the Paper
"Knockout mice survived up to their 70th week, and then they began to display signs common with brain disease, which included a loss of motor coordination. Curiously, the symptoms shown by these knockout mice were similar to those found in many cases of prion diseases."

Tags:brain, cow, creutzfeld, disease, infectious, jacobs, mad, prions, protein

Abstract
The writer explains that in this experiment, lysozyme was purified from egg white solution into 24 fractions using gel column chromatography. The writer points out that the odd-numbered fractions were then assayed in order to determine the enzymatic activity of lysozyme, while the even-numbered fractions were assayed for total protein content, using the Bradford protein assay procedure. The writer notes that lysozyme is one of the most well-known enzymes, being abundant in mucus, tears, and albumen (commonly known as egg white).
The writer concludes that the purification of lysozyme from egg white was only somewhat successful since the estimated value of the molecular weight, 14.25 kDa, is practically the same as the known weight of 14.3 kDa. However, the specific activity, calculated at 400 units/mg, was significantly less than the expected specific activity of 25 000 units/mg of protein.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Calculations
Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Lysozyme is itself composed of 129 amino acids, including four disulfide bridges and three sets of alpha helices. The enzyme's active site consists of a long groove that can hold as many as six polysaccharides. According to past experiments, specific activity of lysozyme from egg white is approximately 25 000 units/mg. This is the expected result for this experiment. However, one factor that influences the specific activity is the actual column and type of chromatography being used, since accuracy differs among the different types of chromatographies. Therefore, some are able to purify enzymes better than others, giving a more accurate specific activity. In addition to obtaining the specific activity, molecular weight of the enzyme can be determined by comparing the fraction in which most of the enzyme eluted with the fractionation range."

Tags:protein, egg, white, calculations, fractions

Abstract
This paper explains that the introduction of DNA evidence has become the cornerstone of many forms of criminal investigations especially for sexual assault and murder. Nonetheless, DNA evidence still has its drawbacks. The author provides a basic understanding of DNA and the ways DNA is used as evidence at crime scenes. The paper points out the issue of privacy, the need for collaboration even when DNA associated with the accused is found, and the difficulty of explaining the complicated DNA procedures to a jury. The paper stresses that the use of DNA is most significant in the area of exonerating previously convicted individuals who were sentenced based on inaccurate eyewitness testimony or other faults of the investigation process.

From the Paper
"One of the controversial advancements that has come along with the use of DNA evidence is the development of DNA databases, which store the DNA of convicted criminals from previous cases. It is very similar to the fingerprint databases that exist, only these databases store the electronic print out of a person's DNA. The controversy occurs over the desire of some political groups to include all humans in these databases and not simply criminals. Additionally, some even object to the database at all, regardless of who's DNA it contains, as they believe it is an invasion of privacy."

Tags:unique, databases, privacy, regions, exoneration

Abstract
The paper summarizes the article "In Vivo Activation of the p53 Pathway by Small-Molecule Antagonists of MDM2" and its study of the MDM2 protein which strongly binds to, and modulates the activity of the p53 tumor suppressor protein. The paper describes the methods and testing used and posits that the methods were relative to the objective and were properly carried out. The paper therefore agrees with the conclusion reached by the article and concludes that this is indeed a promising treatment should it be proven that suppression of MDM2 activity in p53 proteins may lead to the reduction of tumors in humans and animals.

Outline:
Summary
Method

From the Paper
"The main focus of the article is around the MDM2 protein which strongly binds to, and modulates the activity of the p53 tumour suppressor protein by an autoregulatory feedback loop. This is done through three mechanisms. Firstly, MDM2 binds at the p53 transactivation site and blocks its activation of transcription initiation. Secondly, it participates in the nuclear export of p53. Thirdly, it serves as a ubiquitin ligase, promoting the degradation of p53. When p53 is activated, it can bring a halt upon the cell cycle and cause apoptosis."

Tags:MDM2, inhibitors, Nutlin, mice

Abstract
In this article, the writer first explains that a stem cell is a human cell that has the ability to divide itself a large number of times when placed in suitable environment, such as a laboratory culture. The writer notes that stem cell research implications are generally related to human health, and thus human stem cells are the focus of this paper. The writer discusses that many people are opposed to stem-cell research because of the need for using embryo cells, which can either come from aborted foetuses or from the umbilical cords of newborn babies. The writer then argues that, despite the concerns about stem-cell research, there are a great number of medical benefits that have already and may still come from stem-cell research and they far outweigh any potential negative effects. The writer argues that stem-cell research should not only be allowed to continue and prosper, but it should also be well funded and placed at a high priority among medical research fields.

From the Paper
" Stem-cell research has allowed researchers to learn more about how cells regenerate themselves, as well as how initial cells at the embryo stage of development later develop into specific cells with specific functions in the body. This research is very useful for informing scientists about potential treatments for debilitating diseases. Researchers working with stem-cells have become fairly certain that continued research with the stem-cells will lead to potential cures or treatments for diseases such as Parkinson's disease, by regenerating muscle and brain cells. The research is also promising in terms of generating treatment options for individuals with multiple sclerosis. One of the most exciting possibilities for stem-cell research lies in the field of developing organs from stem-cells which could meet the human demand for organ transplants and remove the necessity of finding matching donors. Thus, stem-cell research has the potential to save a remarkable number of human lives."

Tags:human, embryos, regenerate, replicate