Abstract
One of the key players in the establishment of fur trade routes linking the Atlantic ocean with the Pacific and Arctic oceans via a quite complex route through various lakes and rivers of the Canadian shield was Scottish explorer, Alexander Mackenzie. This paper explains how Mackenzie's voyages to the Arctic ocean in 1789 and the Pacific coast in 1792-93 proved to be paramount for the continuation of Westward expansion, and perhaps even more pertinent for the expansion of the fur trade, the major economic means of pre-confederation Canada and a major contributor to Britain's economy. By analyzing Mackenzie's own account of his journeys, as well as other supplementary sources, the paper defines exactly how crucial his two voyages were to all elements of the fur trade and just how extraordinary his journeys were in historical perspective. It explains that the establishment of trade routes to the North and Northwest, establishment of relations with the native tribes along the various waterways, and the discovery of a vast, relatively unexplored territory (unexplored by whites), with much in the way of wildlife and the potential for great wealth and economic prosperity, were all positive aspects in regard to Mackenzie's voyages.

From the Paper
"Alexander Mackenzie was once described, in his younger years, as a man who would take second place to no one whether it be as an explorer or as a fur trader.1 Mackenzie's voyages of 1789 and 1792-93 are conveyed in his journal entries as "strangely unspectacular,"2 quite odd considering the importance of his travels to the well being of the fur trade industry, the chief economic means of British North America at this point in history. In the years prior to his exploration of Northern and Northwestern Canada, Alexander Mackenzie served as an employer to the Northwest fur trading company. Mackenzie, who was young and ambitious at the time, declared his certainty that greater successes for the Northwest company lay in the far West and North of the Canadian territory.3 Mackenzie's only problem lied in company kingpin Simon McTavish whom had a particular dislike for Mackenzie for one reason or another; fueled by his dislike for Mackenzie, McTavish refused to support the young explorer in his wishes to explore the far North and West of Canada. After continuous unsuccessful harboring with McTavish, Mackenzie defected from the Northwest company and found himself employed with rival company, the XY company, with whom Mackenzie expanded with in order to challenge the Northwest company.4 Eventually, after the death of Simon McTavish, the Northwest Company and the XY Company merged in 1787;5 Alexander Mackenzie was stationed at Lake Athabasca, the Company's westernmost post, with fellow explorer and trader, Peter Pond. Both men were determined that great wealth lied in the lands to the North and to the West.6 This determination drove the men to curiosity as to where the Great Slave River running North from Lake Athabasca would lead to. Mackenzie and Pond were also determined to create a continuous trade route linking all three oceans which contained Canada: the Atlantic, the Arctic, and the Pacific.7 Mackenzie's first voyage would be to the Arctic, where he hoped to find a link to the "frozen sea."

Tags:arctic, athabasca, canada, coast, exploration, interior, journey, northwest, ocean, pacific, passage, west

Abstract
This paper discusses the topic of acculturation among the Cree of the Subarctic. It demonstrates that the fur trade had less of an impact on the Cree than other groups who were exposed to more direct contact with the Europeans. In the area of James Bay, acculturative processes appear to have been gradual rather than sudden and dramatic.

From the Paper
"The accounts of early missionaries and traders cannot be trusted, especially on the subject of subsistence, as they are often ambiguous and ethnocentric. Fur traders' journals overuse words such as "starve", creating misleading impressions (Black-Rogers, 1986). Analysis of these journals soon makes obvious that starving came in a number of different varieties. It is necessary to consider the context in which they were written as the intended meaning could be either literal, technical, or manipulative. In many cases, natives and their families were not starving at all. Meaning could be further confused if a trader was reporting what was actually said by a native as opposed to what he observed. It was sometimes customary in native culture to claim to be starving, in an effort to portray humbleness."

Tags:acculturation, algonquian, cree, hunting, nations, territory

Abstract
The paper examines the ideas of various social control scholars and applies theories and perspectives to explain higher degrees of criminality amongst Canadian aboriginals. The paper shows how versions of social control theory explain higher degrees of criminality amongst native people with an emphasis on social inequality but highlights how other factors such as history and culture must also be fully appreciated. The paper asserts that mainstream social bonds along with traditional native culture must continue to develop together to deter aboriginal criminality.

Outline:
Introduction
Social Control Theory
Canada's Aboriginal Experiences Compared to Mainstream Society
Scholars' Perspectives
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Social control theory argues that those with weak bonds to societies' institutions are prone to criminal activity, specifically conventional crime. This paper examines scholars that studied various facets of social control theory and applies their findings to Canadian aboriginal societies. Considerable research suggests social control theorists are accurate in their theories that social bonds deter crime. An example of a society that has lost much of its social control is the aboriginal people of Canada."

Tags:social, bonds, inequality, delinquency

Abstract
This paper examines how Aboriginal art in Canada is often a subversive response to the colonial representations of Canada's First Peoples that produced, promoted and cemented stereotypes. It discusses how this "othering" of Aboriginal peoples in Canada was a tool of nationalism just as much as postcolonial responses to 19th century representations were a tool of reclamation. It also looks at how Thomas King and other Aboriginal visual artists have used postcolonial responses in humorous Aboriginal art to take slices of history and place them in new and unexpected contexts to create new frontiers. The paper also shows how humour in Aboriginal visual art and literature often finds its base in the colonial past and its relationship to the postmodern present.

From the Paper
"The "ethnographic photograph" is a theme that appears more than once in King's One Good Story, That One. In the title story, three anthropologists arrive, camera and tape recorders in hand, requesting stories. The narrator could be a tribal Elder; when Napiao arrives he gives the narrator tobacco, a traditional offering to Elders for their time and knowledge (SAHO 16). Evidently, the anthropologists are already familiar with the local customs; when the narrator "says to Napiao, Ka-sin-ta, in our language, and he laugh" (4), the anthropologists laugh also, although the purpose of the joke in this case, is to exclude the white anthropologists from the discourse. When Napiao finally urges the narrator to tell "old stories ... maybe how the world was put together" (5) the narrator starts with "Once upon a time. Those stories start like that, pretty much, those ones, start on time" (5). In terms of "writing back" to colonial discourse, this short introduction by the narrator is extremely problematic."

Tags:First, Peoples, Indigenous

Abstract
This paper takes a look at the damages caused to First Nations families by residential schools even though the government at that time felt it was the right thing to do.

From the Paper
"The government felt that by sending First Nations people to residential schools they were bettering themselves for the future ahead of them. They felt that their way, "the Indian way", of life was of a lesser quality than that of the European way of life and education. They wanted to make them equal to the white man. The federal government began to play a role in the development and administration of the residential school systems as early as 1874, done mainly to meet its obligation, under the Indian Act, to provide an education and lifestyle for the Aboriginal people."

Tags:first, nations, residential, schools, indian, aboriginie, canada

Abstract
This paper argues that the special rights that Aboriginals are granted in Canada violate Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which states that all individuals are to be treated equally, regardless of their race or ethnic origin. The paper argues that Aboriginals are one group of peoples among many other minority groups that make up Canada. It questions, therefore, why Aboriginals should be given special grants and privileges above everyone else.

From the Paper
"As well, in trying to establish successful colonies, the governments did impose assimilation on Aboriginals; however, Aboriginals were not the only ones subjected to assimilation. Indeed, assimilation and discrimination against certain ethnic groups and races is not a part of history that Canada is proud of, but at the same time it is not an aspect of history that applied only to Aboriginals. Blacks, Asians, eastern Europeans and Irish peoples are just a few of the many cultural groups that were subjected to discrimination upon their immigration to North America. Yet, it is only Aboriginals that are currently granted special rights and benefits in Canada."

Tags:freedoms, colonization, discrimination

Abstract
This essay analyzes the text of George Ryga's "The Ecstasy of Rita Joe", then links it to issues of publishing, culture, and aboriginal people in Canada. Examines the significance of this publication in light of the Americanization of Canadian literature.

From the Paper
'The Ecstasy of Rita Joe is a series of scenes linked by Rita's memory and associations; their causal relations become clear only through repetition. This cause and effect is well illustrated by a particular scene set: Rita Joe admits to stealing a sweater in court. Later, at a clothing drive arranged by Mr. Homer, Jaimie Paul explicitly forbids Rita Joe from taking a red sweater she is admiring. This cause and effect relationship gives credence to Rita Joe's actions, as we are shown very simply how and why these things happen. Her eventual rape and murder is foreshadowed throughout the play, as "the murderers" are written several times into the background scenes of the play; they act as unknown menacing objects at times that Rita shows vulnerability. In terms of linking this book to the modern day, it is this part of the story that I found so striking and timely, as the book has foreshadowed the reality of the past few decades in the downtown eastside of Vancouver, recently come to a head."

Tags:first, nations, native, studies, talonbooks

Abstract
This paper discusses the power struggle that ensued between native tribes and European settlers during the late 19th century. The author discusses the underlying causes that drove both the Cree and the government of Canada to seek peaceful alliance, the great differences in culture and consciousness between the natives and the European descendents and the discrepancies between the promises made by the Commissioners of Treaty Six and the realities experienced by the Cree.

From the Paper
"In September of 1870 the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) transferred the empire of Rupert's Land and the North West Territories to the Government of Canada. The government sought to enlarge the Dominion of Canada and encourage settlement to the west, though before this was possible a new alliance had to be formed with the Cree Nation, the Plains Crees, and the Wood Crees. Treaty Six was negotiated in 1876 and involved the title to 121,000 square miles of Saskatchewan and the welfare of 7000 Indians and 2000 half-breeds."

Tags:canada, indians, natives

Abstract
This paper looks at how residential schools influenced the First Nation Peoples of Canada, their families and their culture. Information on the many types of abuse suffered in the schools and accounts from actual students interviewed. Apology as written by the Government of Canada to Canada's First Nations people.

From the Paper
"I would like to discuss a very sensitive topic about Canadian Aboriginal Residential Schools and the effect it had on both Native peoples and their culture. I am referring to the "abuse," mainly sexual. The assaults that transpired at these learning institutions (so they were called), was shockingly sorted and disturbing. I feel that the situations that occurred in which native children were sexually abused and the scars it left on the Aboriginal people and their families, is not fully understood. I want to give light to the real activities that took place in such institutions that were designed to train Aboriginals to be "good white citizens." "

Tags:aboriginal, government, racism

Abstract
This paper examines how, since the 1980s, the idea of Aboriginal sovereignty has been a subject of growing debate in Canada and how centrally at issue is the dispute over Aboriginal rights. It discusses how there is a contrast between traditional Aboriginal values and those of modern-day society and how within Canada there exists a prevailing tension between Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals on many levels. It analyzes how the government is in need of serious revision and why some Canadians feel that the only solution to the crisis the Aboriginal peoples presently find themselves in is some form of Aboriginal sovereignty. It shows how these Canadians believe that the best way to address the crisis is to have First Nations peoples control their own destiny through self-determination in order to confront current challenges successfully and ultimately lead to a greater state of well-being for its peoples.

From the Paper
"In addition to the Indian Act, which was subsequently amended multiple times, other influential policy documents were developed including the Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian Policy (1969), also known as the White Paper and Citizens Plus (1970) which "presents a counter-policy written by the Union of Alberta Indians, a treaty Indian group, in reaction to the federal document" (41) and called for Aboriginal self-determination. The White Paper's aim "was to outline a strategy that would integrate Indian peoples into mainstream society" (43). Conversely, "The guiding principles for economic development, proposed in Citizens Plus, suggest a reliance on a combination of government assistance and private enterprise [in order to] make reserve communities into centers of profitable and productive private industry" (49)."

Tags:first, nations, government, genocide, culture, religion