Abstract
The paper considers the advantages and disadvantages of hydrogen and ethanol and determines that hydrogen is not a feasible alternative fuel until technology is developed to hold higher quantities. The paper explains why ethanol is the better alternative of the two and concludes that if we adopt ethanol as the fuel of the future, we are sure to have a cleaner and greener earth. The paper includes full color images.

Outline:
Hydrogen
Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen Storage
Hydrogen Transportation and Distribution
Production of Ethanol
Storage of Ethanol
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Hydrogen is one of the many competitors looking to replace gasoline at the pumps. It has many advantages over an ethanol fuel, hydrogen requires less heat to ignite than ethanol, which means that more energy is used for powering the vehicle as opposed to igniting the fuel. (2006) In addition, its flame gives off much less radiant heat than a hydrocarbons flame, yet the flame is just as hot. (2006) Hydrogen's energy produced per unit of mass is larger than that of hydrocarbon fuels by a factor of 2.8. (Snyder, 2006). The higher specific energy means that the car can produce more heat energy for the same amount of fuel mass."

Tags:transport, pipelines, trucks, tankers, energy, density, production

Abstract
The paper discusses an experiment that examines how yeasts adapt to various competitions and how they fare against several changes in their surrounding environment. The paper explains that this experiment will determine the factors that affect the growth of yeast positively and negatively. The paper includes tables and graphs with the results of this experiment.

Outline:
Introduction
Results
Discussion

From the Paper
"Yeast is an excellent system in biology as it is a eukaryote whose genome can easily be influenced and controlled. Yeast also share similarities with their competitive prokaryotic counterparts, bacteria, such as fast growth, and wide dispersal of their cells. A species of yeast, more specifically Saccharomyces cereviseae was the first eukaryote whose genome was fully sequenced (Goffeau et al., 1996). The S. cereviseae is also a commonly used yeast in the fermentation of various products such as beer, by the break down of complex organic substances like glucose, into the simpler alcohol. Therefore it is only natural that people have been so interested in yeast and its invaluable properties in fermentation. Much ongoing research exists that tries to exploit the process of brewing for fast fermentation and maturation in producing malt beverages using yeasts (Masschelein C.A. et al., 1994)."

Tags:conditions, growth, competitions, organisms, survival, beer, vinegar

Abstract
This paper explains that virtually all bacteria strains have viruses specific to them. The paper then describes an experiment that takes coliphages from sewage and, after enrichment and filtration processes, exposes the E.Coli R10 strain to the phages to obtain the phage specific to the strain. The paper further explains that the bacteria strains are grown on agar plates in the presence of coliphages, and strains W3104-A on plates K12 and W3104 and R12-B on plate K12 developed resistance. The paper then reports that the W3104-A strain is further tested and retains its resistance.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Method
Isolation and Enrichment of Coliphage from Raw Sewage
Filtration of Coliphage Mixtures
Dilution and Plaque Preparation of R10A and R10B E. Coli Strains
Mutation and Isolation of Phage-Resistant E. Coli Strains
Sensitivity of Phage-Resistant Mutants to Bacteriophages
Results
Discussion
Table: Colonies of Bacterial Strains Response to Coliphages

From the Paper
"Bacteria have the ability to develop resistance to viruses [6], so as it can be expected some strains (namely W3104-A and R12-B) developed phage-resistant colonies. It is known that certain genetic elements called "episomes" are instrumental in creating phage-resistance in E. Coli strains such as K12 [8]. As indicated in table 1, there were numerous contaminations; this was certainly due to many of the unfiltered cultures that were used. This was done because of time constraints and shortage or missing supplies in the lab."

Tags:viruses, bacteriophages, cultures, spontaneous, resistant

Abstract
This paper discusses an experiment that introduced several methods of differentiating between several types of organic compounds containing oxygen in their functional groups. Specifically, the experiment compares alcohols, ethers, aldehydes and ketones. The paper presents the results in a table and discusses them. Several figures are also presented.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion

From the Paper
"In this test, the rate of reaction is dependant upon the degree of substitution. This is because the Lucas reagent creates conditions that favour the SN1 mechanism, and therefore, the most substituted carbocation intermediate will react the fastest. Therefore, when the alcohol group is on a tri-substituted carbon, like in 3-methyl-1-buten-3-ol and 2-methyl-2-butanol, the reaction will be the fastest. In addition, 3-methyl-1-buten-3-ol contains a double bond, which enables resonance stabilization of the carbocation intermediate. 2-methyl-2-butanol lacks this feature, and is therefore, slightly slower. Since the alcohol group is on a di-substituted carbon in 3-methyl-2-butanol, the reaction will be even slower. 3-methyl-1-butanol will not even react since its alcohol group is on a mono-substituted carbon."

Tags:differentiating, compounds, reaction

Abstract
This paper presents a formal biology laboratory report. It presents a procedure that was devised to remove all bacteria from a chicken wing. It begins by discussing the bacteria that can be present on chicken wings and the possible solutions to the problem. The paper then reports on a test for the efficacy of certain antibiotics on the bacteria of the untreated wing.

Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Study Organisms
Treatment Of Choice For Elimination Of Bacteria From A Chicken Wing
Serial Dilutions Of Washes From Both Wings
Gathering Of Bacterial Cultures From Both Wings
Effects Of Various Antibiotics On Three Types Of Bacteria
Results
Control Agar Petri Plate
Treatment Agar Petri Plate
Antibiotic Disk Results
Chicken Wing Bacteria
Discussion
Appendix

From the Paper
"It is important to remove all bacteria, such as salmonella, from raw foods to avoid any foodborne diseases. Four serial dilutions were created in microfuge test tubes for a control chicken wing and a treatment chicken wing. The treatment chicken wing was treated using vinegar, salt, and heat. Cultures from each microfuge test tube were streaked on two different agar plates and left to reproduce, incubated at 30o Celsius for 22 hours. The proposed treatment of the chicken wing proved to be 100% effective producing no visible colonies on the agar plate. Four antibiotics - penicillin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol - were used to treat E. coli, M. luteus, and chicken wing bacteria. The bacteria cultures were smeared on three different Petri dishes, and divided into four quadrants where antibiotic disks were placed. After 22 hours of incubation at 30o Celsius, diameters of the rings of clear agar around each antibiotic disk were recorded. Chloramphenicol produced the largest diameter on all three Petri dishes, while penicillin proved to work best on gram-positive bacteria. The bacteria on the chicken wing were gram-negative and most resistant to tetracycline."

Tags:laboratory, experiment, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, penicillin

Abstract
The following paper examines the history of solid propulsion and black powder and discusses how it was used. It also looks at the advantages and disadvantages of solid propulsion in relation to its liquid counterparts.

From the Paper
"The first solid propulsion engines were invented by the Chinese early in the 13th century in use of fireworks. These homemade rockets were propelled by black powder. The first recorded military use was in 1232 in a military siege where the powder propelled rockets were used to set fire to tents. It wasn't until years later around the early 15th century when they started becoming used in Europe and equipped with a payload. Gunpowder started being used as it burned slower than black powder. The two have same the same ingredients but in different proportions. A large step forward was when the solid propulsion rockets were used to carry rope from distressed ships to shore in stormy conditions. The sailors would use the rope as a lifeline in their rowboats. However this relied on the fact that the shore could only be as far away as the longest rope."

Tags:solid, rocket, oxidizer, Newton, third, law, equal, reaction, space, travel, reliability, ignition

Abstract
The writer explains that in this experiment, lysozyme was purified from egg white solution into 24 fractions using gel column chromatography. The writer points out that the odd-numbered fractions were then assayed in order to determine the enzymatic activity of lysozyme, while the even-numbered fractions were assayed for total protein content, using the Bradford protein assay procedure. The writer notes that lysozyme is one of the most well-known enzymes, being abundant in mucus, tears, and albumen (commonly known as egg white).
The writer concludes that the purification of lysozyme from egg white was only somewhat successful since the estimated value of the molecular weight, 14.25 kDa, is practically the same as the known weight of 14.3 kDa. However, the specific activity, calculated at 400 units/mg, was significantly less than the expected specific activity of 25 000 units/mg of protein.

Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Calculations
Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Lysozyme is itself composed of 129 amino acids, including four disulfide bridges and three sets of alpha helices. The enzyme's active site consists of a long groove that can hold as many as six polysaccharides. According to past experiments, specific activity of lysozyme from egg white is approximately 25 000 units/mg. This is the expected result for this experiment. However, one factor that influences the specific activity is the actual column and type of chromatography being used, since accuracy differs among the different types of chromatographies. Therefore, some are able to purify enzymes better than others, giving a more accurate specific activity. In addition to obtaining the specific activity, molecular weight of the enzyme can be determined by comparing the fraction in which most of the enzyme eluted with the fractionation range."

Tags:protein, egg, white, calculations, fractions

Abstract
This paper is a biography of Marie Curie's life, as well as her work and impact in the fields of physics and chemistry. It also pays particular notice to radioactivity. The paper is based on the strong theme that "nothing in life is to be feared, only understood," a quote attributed to Marie Curie herself.

From the Paper
"Marie's childhood was not a perfect one by any means. She was the fifth child in her family, and soon after she was born, both of her parents lost their jobs as teachers. Despite losing their jobs, Marie's parents still managed to instill into their daughter the value of education, and had taught her to read by age 4. Her parents also instilled in Marie a sense of duty. This, combined with the family's economic circumstances lead Marie to lead "the most Spartan of lives." ["Marie Curie", Minist're des Affaires "trang'res de la R'publique Francaise, 1.] Marie's childhood continued to be harsh, as she had to deal with the deaths of both her mother, and one of her sisters by age 11. This only served to create a sense of "agnosticism that would later bolster her faith in science," ["Marie Curie," Minist're des Affaires "trang'res de la R'publique Francaise, 1.] however. Despite the many setbacks that seemed to litter her childhood, Marie persevered. In spite of the long hours she spent helping cook meals for the boarders that her family had taken in, at age 15, Marie won a medal for excellence at her high school, where the examinations where administered in Russian. She dreamed of someday becoming a scientist, something that was not socially-acceptable for women to do in Poland in the 1880's."

Tags:polonium, radioactivity, radium

Abstract
This essay contains the history of the pesticide DDT and it's uses within the environment. DTT is a harmful pesticide which has been detrimental to the environment, and has caused a decline in a variety of species. The author focuses specifically on the effects of the pesticide on the environment.

From the Paper
" As earth's population grows so does the demand for food, and the use of pesticides has become essential in meeting this demand. The first important synthetic organic pesticide was a chlorinated hydrocarbon, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane or DDT. DDT was discovered in 1939 by Swiss chemist Paul Meller. In its early days, DDT was a popular pesticide because it was toxic to a wide range of insect pests, yet it appeared to have low toxicity to mammals. DDT was also persistent, which meant the pesticide didn't break down rapidly in the environment and therefore did not need to be reapplied often and since DDT was insoluble it did not wash off by rain or other weather conditions. Although gradually throughout time it was discovered that many insects had developed resistance to DDT, and it was discovered that DDT did in fact pose to be harmful to the ecosystem. This discovery created wide public interest and made people aware that chemicals were polluting the environment. As a result DDT was banned for use in North America and other countries in the early 1970's. Though pesticides, such as DDT, may decrease the number of insects, throughout history it has been proven that there is a detrimental effect upon the environment, animals and humans as a result."

Tags:ecology, ecosystem, damage

Abstract
This paper examines the dangers of the notorious chemical DDT and shows why it should be banned by the year 2007, as environmentalist groups have aimed to do. The paper covers issues relating to the chemical including a growing resistance to its use, effective alternatives and the extent of its environmental destruction.

From the Paper
"The environmental damage that DDT causes is enough in itself to justify a total ban. DDT is a very persistent chemical and because if its molecular structure breaks down very slowly within nature. There are rough estimates that the half-life of DDT is around 12-15 years depending on the climate it is exposed to. This is partly why it is so dangerous in the environment. Another factor is that DDT is able to travel great distances, and is found every where throughout the globe. This is a strange and disturbing discovery because some places have never been sprayed before, such as Antarctica and the ocean bottoms. The spraying of DDT has unintentionally killed some main predators of the mosquito. Dragonfly larva hunt mosquito larva in puddles and stagnant ponds and also the adult dragonfly will hunt adult mosquitoes further reducing their numbers. DDT has worked in the past but as it destroyed fragile ecosystems it has now increased mosquito numbers. DDT is also the linked chemical responsible for the decline in the population of the Bald eagle and the Peregrine falcon. These two species are at the top of the food chain, thus their prey usually have been exposed to DDT."

Tags:bioaccumilation, malaria, Bacillus, Thuringiensis