Abstract
This paper claims that the international community failed to act or even uphold international law as a genocide was occurring because Rwanda is a poor African nation, which has very little significance within international relations. The paper examines the issue of hypocrisy within international relations when it comes to upholding and applying international law. The paper claims that international law is applied, or not, depending on the status of a country. It attempts to prove this through an examination of the reaction of the international community to the events that occurred in Rwanda, starting in April of 1994. The paper analyzes the issue of the Rwandan genocide to illustrate that, within international relations, a country receives the protection of the international community, like Kuwait did, not because of any utopian ideals, but because of realistic calculations regarding the importance and significance of this country.

From the Paper
"In the second place, and as Philip Gorevitch writes, the Tutsi sent several appeals to the international community to save them and sent detailed reports of what was happening to governments, media and to representatives of Western governments (98-99). In the third place, foreign governments found the reports of the genocide believable enough to order the evacuation of all their citizens from the country. The French government sent its military to evacuate French nationals and witnessed the genocide for themselves (142-144). Consequently, the explanation for lack of action as being lack of knowledge of the genocide is not acceptable by any standards."

Tags:Tutsi, Clinton, Security, Council

Abstract
This paper discusses 'Things Fall Apart' by the Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe. It is informed by a sense of history and how it reflects on the process of colonization. It explores Achebe's motivations behind 'Things Fall Apart' and evaluates the ways in which the novel acts to reclaim Africa's genuine past. It describes the novel's plot and analyzes the use of tragic irony.

From the Paper
"The Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe is one of the most prominent figures in post-colonial literature and he actively seeks to reclaim African heritage. Western colonization of Africa destroyed native religions, languages and forcibly replaced African heritage with the European culture. In this sense, people of post-colonial countries feel they have been denied their true history and seek to rediscover their past. Achebe strongly disagreed with the existing portrayal of his homeland and it is through his novel Things Fall Apart (1958) that Achebe realizes his desire to expose the Western view of African history as false and repossess Nigeria's genuine past."

Tags:Chinua, Achebe, Africa, colonial, colonisation, culture, heritage, history, Nigeria, post

Abstract
The writer gives a brief history of female genital mutilation (FGM) including the different types, the reasons behind this occurrence and why it continues today. The paper looks at FGM in Egypt and Kenya and the policies in each of these countries are outlined in detail. The author explains that in Egypt FGM began for religious reasons and despite many challenges to the validity of the Fatwa, or religious decree, continues to this day. According to the paper, the rate is smaller than in previous generations, but it still continues to pose a threat to the lives of young girls in the country. In the case of Kenya, it began as a rite of passage, which largely went unnoticed by the rest of the world until the early 1960s when Kenya wanted independence and suddenly found this practice under scrutiny by the rest of the western world. The paper also discusses the United Nations and World Agency positions on FGM in order to help understand what attempts are being made by the world community to try to stop this practice on the grounds that it is a violation of human rights.

From the Paper
"Data from the Adolescence and Social Change in Egypt survey suggest significant recent change in both the prevalence and practices surrounding female circumcision. After apparently remaining constant and nearly universal for several decades, prevalence among contemporary teenage girls is predicted to be more than 10 percent less than for their mothers. Still, the level of circumcision among Egyptian girls is high. Our data do not allow us to pinpoint the onset of the decline, but they do suggest an increased momentum in the years following 1994. Without further measurement at later time points, we cannot be certain that uncircumcised girls in the ASCE sample will avoid circumcision in the future. However, analysis of girls' own attitudes toward the practice hint that increasing age brings greater independence of thought and diminished support for circumcision (Nawal, 1980)."

Tags:fgm, kenya, egypt, african, clitoris, labia, religion, muslim, resarch, sexuality, scholars, circumcision, islam, health, risks, passage, rite, culture, ethnic, women, organizations, status, social, health, child, family

Abstract
This paper explores the ancient history of the region and how the borders of the country of Sudan evolved. The country's current socio-political and economic situation is analyzed. It looks at the ruling regime in Sudan and how it came to power and then examines how this regime effects the country's weak economy. The social and religious concerns are also examined from a human rights point of view.

From the Paper
"Man has lived in the Sudan for at least nine million years and the valley of the Nile that wanders more than 4,000 miles from the lakes of Central Africa to the Mediterranean may be the cradle of civilization rather than the Euphrates. Almost four centuries before Christ the Ox-driven water wheel which still plays a vital role in the country's economy, was introduced to the
Sudan. At the same time came camels, brought with them by the Persians when Cambyses invaded Egypt in 525 BC. It is Africa's largest country with a wide diversity of ethnic and religious groups. Originally populated by peoples of African origin, it was gradually taken over by Arab traders from Egypt. They gave the country its name, Sudan, and brought in the - today - dominant religion, Islam. Later Sudan was part of the British Empire, administered by Egypt under the "Condominium" agreement until 1955."

Tags:africa, NIF, SPLM, islam, arab, trade, resource, agriculture, oil, UN, human, rights

Abstract
This paper introduces and analyzes the novel "Nervous Conditions" by writer Tsitsi Danarembga which tells of Tambu and her struggle with her true identity after she is pressured to take on the values of the English who colonized her country. This paper discusses the major theme of the book - that being true to ones own culture is the only possibility for all people, with anything else resulting in failure. The paper explores the issue of "being English" in relation to the events of the novel.

From the Paper
"As well as telling her own story, Tambu also tells the story of her sister Nyasha. Nyasha's story is equally important at showing the problems that occur in attempting to become English. Nyasha can be seen as the opposite of Tambu. Tambu deals with the situation by not letting go of her African culture. In contrast, Nyasha seems to willingly accept the English culture and reject her own African culture. The danger of this is shown by the fact that Nyasha develops anorexia. This becomes an important symbol in the novel, illustrating the major theme. Firstly, Nyasha becoming anorexic can be seen as a symbol of the dangers of ignoring our real identity. It is not only that Nyasha has the disease that shows the dangers, it is also relevant what the disease represents.

Anorexia is a disease associated with body image where the individual attempts to improve their looks on the surface. The reality is though, that this disease has a negative impact on the human body, actually worsening the individual's appearance. This is similar to Nyasha's rejection of her identity. On the surface she chooses to act according to the English culture, but underneath she remains African, simply denying the reality of her culture. Just as anorexia does harm, so does this rejection by Nyasha."

Tags:Nyasha, anorexia, Tambudzia

Abstract
The chilling title of Phillip Gourevitch's book, "We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our Families" (1998), is a reference to a group letter from members of the Tutsi clergy to an Adventist church leader, Elizaphan Ntakirutimana, pleading for his protection from the Hutu majority in Rwanda. Gourevitch's book concerns the genocide that took place in Rwanda in 1994 in which the Hutu majority systematically massacred the minority Tutsi population. As a result of this effort at ethnic cleansing, an estimated 800,000 Tutsi were killed over the course of a 100-day period from April to July 1994. In fact, during the height of the massacre, Gourevitch reports that members of the Tutsi tribe were being massacred three times as fast as the Jews had been during the Nazi Holocaust. To better understand the events that contributed to this horrific slaughter in modern times, this paper provides a critical review of Gourevitch's book, including a discussion of how the religious, national, racial, and ethnic groupings in Rwanda were used as tools for the genocide. A discussion of how European colonialism, Rwandan politics, and the role of different aid organizations also contributed to the genocide is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.

From the Paper
"In this book, Gourevitch paints a grim picture about the events that led to the 1994 genocide in which hundreds of thousands of Tutsis were massacred to the point where the Hutus almost succeeded in completely eliminating the Tutsi segment of the Rwandan population, as well as countless members of the Hutus themselves who opposed the slaughter in the first place. The systematic and institutionalized method by which this slaughter took place was not unique to Rwanda, of course, but Gourevitch suggests that a combination of a cultural acceptance of violence, the nefarious roles played by NGOs, Rwandan governmental agencies and the nation's churches, all contributed to the genocide that took place during those terrible months of 1994."

Tags:Rwandese, Patriotic, Front, NGO, Mbonyumutwa

Abstract
This essay examines the continued existence of female genital mutilation and the arguments presented in favor of discontinuing the practice and for enforcing legislation against it.

From the Paper
"There are two things that female genital mutilation (FGM) is not. It is neither an African problem, nor is it a third world problem. This infringement of women's rights has occurred all over the world, including here in Canada. Female genital mutilation is therefore a global problem, which can no longer be ignored, postponed, or buried in the international community's agenda. Secondly, it is not a debate on morality. Instead the debate should be posed as a question of a woman's individual right to be free of circumcision versus the tribal groups' right to maintain its tribal identity through the practice of female circumcision, without state interference. Debating the morality of another culture is an unfair judgment due to the difficulty of shedding ones western values and taking on another. Analyzing cultural values of people through different cultural filters creates misinterpretations and inaccurate assumptions that take away from the seriousness of the issue. With two million girls between the age of eight days and young adulthood at risk of having to endure this practice in primarily unsanitary conditions with no anesthetic, or antibiotics, this topic could not be more severe (Dorkenoo 294). These practicing cultures have the potential to change this tradition, as the Chinese chose to do with their custom of foot-binding (Mackie). Not only does this practice go against all international conventions put into place to protect women and children, but also there is no enforcement by the respective states. Also proponents of FGM point to arguments such as religion and tradition to support the continuation of this custom, it is obvious that those defenses are no longer sufficient to combat global human rights grievances."

Tags:eastern, human, perspective, religion, rights, tradition, western, women

Abstract
This paper explores the spreading of AIDS in Africa. It shows various studies headed by international organizations that have tried to both analyze and prevent the rapid spread of AIDS on the African continent. It points to various factors such as lack of education, absence of contraceptives, and poverty as reasons for the fast spread of HIV. It also focuses on why women are much more likely to be infected and spread the disease.

From the paper:

"AIDS is a demographic disease. The most prone to the disease are women, children and the poor. The testimony to this statement is the fact that in a country like Africa the most effected by AIDS is the women and the children. This is mainly because they have to deal with the fact that society considers them a second-class citizen, they are basically the child bearers and have many stigmas attached to their actions within the society."

Tags:HIV, sex, disease, epidemic, women, sexually transmitted

Abstract
This paper introduces and discusses "The River Between" by Ngugi wa Thiong'o which tells the tale of two rival communities, Kameno and Makuyu, which face each other and are separated only by the Honia River. The paper describes how these two villages are in a constant battle over conflicting myths of leadership and religion, which have been the basis of their arguments for many generations. The paper shows how Ngugi focuses on the impact of Christian missionaries on the balance of African culture.

From the Paper
"The inhabitants of the Kameno ridge have indigenous cultural traditions such as polytheism and circumcision, while those of the Makuyu ridge had already succumbed to Christianity and British colonization. This story is mainly about the conflicted relationship between two villages representing traditional African beliefs on the one side and Christianity on the other. In this novel, a mission-educated character tries unsuccessfully to synthesize the Christian worldview with the Gikuyu, even as he comes to understand the completely destructive force Christianity will have on his indigenous culture."

Tags:Mugo, wa, Kibiro, Joshua, Livingstone, Waiyaki

Abstract
The writer of this paper claims that the 1994 Rwandan genocide of 800 000 people was preventable. The paper shows how during the affair, the UN appeared disorganized and lacked any initiative and the author recounts chains of events and also the results of the UN's actions (or inaction).

From the Paper
"In 1994, from April 6 until June 14, one of worse and deadliest massacres of the 20th century occurred in Rwanda. These bloody two months, triggered by the mysterious assassination of Rwandan President Habyarimana, resulted in the murders of 800,000 people (approximately 6 people per minute). Despite these outrageous figures, the international community reacted in an extremely slow manner. The huge death toll of this genocide could have been prevented if various countries and international organizations had not allowed personal politics hold them back."

Tags:25, dallaire, decision, directive, genocide, hutu, nations, peacekeeping, presidential, romeo, rwanda, tutsi, un, unamir, united