Abstract
This paper examines the history behind the Great Wall of China and how the original construction of the wall was essentially nothing more than bricks, wood, grass and packed earth and how its simple structure changed very little over the next many centuries. It also discusses how
more than 2000 years after its construction, the Great Wall is still seen by the Chinese as not only an everlasting testament of the industriousness of its people, but also an overwhelming and almost mystical symbol.

From the Paper
"The Great Wall played a large part in all of the early dynasties of China, but its origin can be traced back to 221 B.C. After the western state of Qin subjugated and united seven states that had been at war since the 5th century, subsequently forming China, the ruler of Qin declared himself the first Emperor of China (Dalin 15). He gave himself the name Qin She Huangdi, which, conveniently enough, means 'First Emperor' in Chinese. One of Qin's first orders once in power was for all peasants, prisoners, and anyone else available to begin construction of a massive wall ("The Great Wall of China", screen 1). What would become the Great Wall was, in actuality, several very small already-standing fortification walls connected (Dalin 15). These smaller walls had been built by past dynasties, with the same reasons in mind as those that would years later prompt the erecting of the Great Wall."

Tags:dynasties, wonders, world, qin

Abstract
This paper explores what Mao's initial intention was when he first launched the Cultural Revolution and why he failed to achieve his initial goals. Contesting the commonly accepted assumption that sees a purge of oppositional forces as Mao's primary intention, it argues that Mao's fundamental motive for the revolution was his strong desire to remodel China according to his communist ideals.

From the Paper
"Wang argues that Mao's strong desire to consolidate his Marxist ideals, which can be seen as the major cause of the Cultural Revolution, was driven by the fundamental contradiction within the Chinese society that time. When the Communists came to power in 1949, the new regime shared with its Republican and late-Qing predecessors the determination to strengthen the nation. China was facing two broad goals to achieve at once. One was to acquire economic and technical power so that it could develop into an advanced, powerful, industrial society. The other was to create a society based on values that conformed to Marxist concepts of social justice. China's long history of chronic poverty and inquality strongly drove its national leaders to promote both full-speed modernization and egalitarian social transformation. "

Tags:mao, proletariat, revolution, communism

Abstract
This paper illustrates and concludes that the Opium Wars not only reinforced Western influence in China, but also had many long and short term effects. The writer maintains that the Opium Wars not only caused the short-term crisis of opium addiction, but also weakened the economy by further opening China to the West. The writer discusses that Chinese resistance to Western influence and the weakness of the Imperial government created mass popular movements, such as the Taiping rebellion, with the goal of bringing down the Manchu dynasty. Social structure and ideologies were also affected, as Chinese scholars and leaders learned Western ideas and technologies.

From the Paper
"In the early 19th century, most of the world was dominated by European powers. Great Britain, in particular, had a huge hand in this power play. Having gained control of several colonies in Africa, as well as the extremely profitable colony of India, Britain was indeed an Empire. However, one country still maintained a closed-door policy towards the West. China's refusal to trade with the West ultimately led to the conflict between Great Britain and China, known as the Opium Wars. The Opium Wars resulted in many repercussions for China, most of them negative. Not only did the Opium Wars reinforce Western influence on China, but brought about many social, economic and political changes to the Chinese people.
In order to understand the Opium Wars, one must first examine the tense relationship between Britain and France prior to the start of the war. Before 1840, China was completely closed off from the world, and trade with the West was only permitted in the city of Canton. Western traders were discouraged from trading by the restrictions imposed upon them by the Chinese. To even enter Canton, ``one needed special permission, which was rarely given."

Tags:china, britain, opium, opium wars, history, chinese, war

Abstract
This paper compares and contrasts the socio-political structures in China under the Ming Dynasty and the People's Republic of China. In doing so, the author explores the differences between Confucius's philosophies and Mao's with its roots in Soviet Communism. A good part of the paper is devoted toward a discussion of Zhu Yuanzhang's totalitarian rule.

From the Paper
"In 1911 AD, a revolution in China overthrew the Manchu rulers and ended the Qing Dynasty. Over the next forty years China was ruled by various warlords, occupied by the Japanese, and eventually liberated by the nationalist forces of Chang Kai Shek, known as the Guomindang. However, before China could be restored to order, the Red Army of the Chinese Communist party, operating in small guerilla units, took first the North and then the South of China, forcing Chang and the remnants of his forces to flee to Taiwan. On October 1st 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the people's republic of China."

Tags:asia, china, communist, east, guomindang, history, mao, ming, people, political, politics, republic, science, taiwan, zedong

Abstract
The paper offers arguments on the importance of the U.S.-Indonesia relations during the Cold War era. The main point that this paper reflects is how the potential spread of Communism in Indonesia paved the way for the infiltration of U.S. foreign policy into Indonesia's domestic and foreign affairs. U.S. interest in Indonesia focused mainly on the country's abundance of natural resources and location, and the U.S. attempted to dissuade Indonesia from falling into Communist hands.

From the Paper
"With Sukarno spearheading the quest for Indonesia Merdeka, Indonesian demands for independence grew dramatically, prompting the colonial government to withdraw from its Ethical Policy commitments by the late 1920s. Fearing potential surges of nationalist movements, the leaders of PNI were arrested and later tried. Among others, Sukarno was arrested in December 1929 and put on trial for sedition in 1930, after which he was found guilty and sentenced to four years in prison. The imprisonment of the party leaders led to the dissolution of the PNI in April 1931. The split was thought to have been triggered by disparities in approaches to the nationalist movement, each with ethnic overtones. Furthermore, fueled by their intolerance of radical nationalist movements, the Dutch government formally banned a new stream of nationalist movement in the form of Partindo (Indonesian Party), which replaced the PNI as the new dominant force in nationalist movement."

Tags:asia, policy, southeast

Abstract
This paper examines how over the centuries, China has had different levels of involvement in Tibet. It looks at how prior to 1950, Tibet was inhabited entirely by ethnic Tibetans and how policies by the People's Republic of China have changed the makeup of the region. It discusses how despite the efforts of a global social campaign led by the exiled Dalai Lama, the P.R.C. have made it clear that Tibet will not become an independent country under their watch. It also examines how currently, there are millions of non-Tibetan Chinese citizens living and working in the Tibet Autonomous Region and how although China has committed atrocities against the Tibetan people, current Chinese policy seems to be for the purpose of correcting the lives and conditions for Tibet.

From the Paper
"However, the sixth Dalai Lama, Tsayang Gyatso was a disappointment. He did not rule justly and "turned out to be totally deviant in attitude and values, refusing to play the role of a celibate religious practitioner. He renounced his monastic vows and became a famous libertine, writing love poems and carousing with women at night in Lhasa." During this time Lhabsang Khan, was the king of Tibet, and was friendly to the Qing Dynasty, instead of the Dzungar Mongols, a group of Mongols that was trying to take over China. Khan decided to declare that the sixth Dalai Lama was not the real incarnation, and removed him from his seat, forcing Tsayang Gyatso into exile."

Tags:communist, dalai, lama

Abstract
This paper examines the development of nationalism in modern China, from the Han response to the Qing government to anti-imperialist agitation and republicanism under the guidance of Sun Yatsen. It looks briefly at the New Culture Movement and the role of secret societies such as the Tongmeng hui.

From the paper:

"Nationalism has been a defining ideology in the creation of Modern China, promoted at first by a series of secret societies, and later by both the Guomingdang and the Chinese Communist Party to achieve different ends. It was central to the early student movements, and the May Fourth Movement, and nationalism was the first of Sun Yatsen's Three Principles of the People. In its early stages, Chinese nationalism was based on ethnic and racial identity, and centered on Han identity, however over time the significance of ethnic identity has decreased. Foreign influence in the conceptualization of Chinese nationalism has been problematic to developing a clear understanding of the movement; despite this, nationalism developed in a particularly Chinese manner."

Tags:anti, culture, han, imperialism, manchu, qing, secret, societies, sun, treaties, yatsen

Abstract
Gandhi is unquestionably one of the most influential figures in recent history. This paper explores how he used his spiritual beliefs to stage a non-violent revolution and force political and social change in both South Africa and his native India.

From the Paper
"Gandhi lived a spiritual life of prayer, fasting, and meditation. Indians thought of him as a saint and began to call him Mahatma, a title which is only reserved for the greatest sages. Through the practice of non-violence, Gandhi believed Britain would eventually see the wisdom in leaving India. The colonialists, however, did not see things the same way. They claimed that India would be reduced to chaos without British rule. England also believed it had a duty to the Muslim subjects who were a minority. British troops, they said, were essential to maintaining the peace. However, Gandhi believed that the Indian people would much prefer to govern themselves than to continue relinquishing their power to alien authority."

Tags:africa, british, colonialism, satyagraha

Abstract
This paper examines the appeal of Buddhism in the historical context of the Period of Division. It explains that Buddhism's rise was answering the needs and desires of both the people and the rulers, especially foreign rulers, in a period of instability and in competition with the past dominated by Confucianism and organized Daoism. There is also the dialectic between its new content as a foreign religion and its sinicization, as both can account for its success in China.

From the Paper
"The Period of Division in Chinese history spreads between 220 and 589 A.D. The period is marked by wars, successions of small kingdoms, and great political instability and misery for the people. It is also the period of nomadic invasions. Buddhism exerted a great appeal to the Chinese during this period, became dominant at least in the north, and firmly established itself alongside Confucianism and Daoism as the main religions or schools of thought in China. What are the reasons behind its popularity during this period?"

Tags:china

Abstract
This paper is a discussion of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan as the greatest rulers of all time, arguing that Alexander the Great was the greater ruler. It compares and contrasts the empires of both. The armies and military strategies of the two are also discussed.

From the Paper
"Both men developed large empires and although Genghis' empire was larger, Alexander's proved to be more influential to civilizations and empires to come. Alexander had inherited his throne from his father Philip of Macedonia in 356BC at the age of 20. He continued in his father's campaign to rid Greece of the Persians, but he did not stop there. In the span of four years he had conquered all of Persia. By the time of his death, his empire spanned from the Adriatic Sea to India. His main objective was to create a common cultural exchange throughout the world. Due to the extensive trade routes in highly populated areas of that time, he was able to achieve his goal. He succeeded in establishing Greek as the universal language and was able to pass the Greek culture to other countries."

Tags:genghis, khan