Abstract
This paper examines how Voltaire noted that the Holy Roman Empire was "neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire." It discusses and clarifies Voltaire's statement, examining the nature of the empire generally and then looks specifically at the reasons for the disunity which ultimately rendered it an ineffective institution. Causes for disunity discussed include: the Reformation and the ensuing wars, culminating in the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).

From the Paper
"The Holy Roman Empire never achieved the political unification that France did. "As early as the first half of the thirteenth century, the German Emperor, weakened by furious struggles with the papacy, by the effort to impose his authority in central and northern Italy, had been forced to withdraw his officers from both ecclesiastical and secular principalities."18 German princes were granted even greater powers such as the ability to coin money and administer justice in their own territories.18 A prolonged attempt at centralizing authority starting with Maximilian I (1493-1519) was disrupted by the Reformation and the ensuing wars, culminating with the Thirty Years' War (1618-48) and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648)."

Tags:reformation, treaty, voltaire, westphalia

Abstract
This paper examines death as addressed by two influential philosophers, Socrates and Epicurus. These philosophers take different approaches in viewing death and both have their own distinct reasons regarding it, however they reach the same conclusion, that death should not be feared. The paper discusses how Socrates addressees the uncertainty that follows death and how death may be even more pleasant than the life we once lived, while Epicurus addressees the non-existence of death, and illustrates how death does not affect us.

From the Paper
"We shall begin our examination by looking at Socrates and the various arguments he makes. Socrates, a prolific philosopher in ancient Greece, was sentenced to execution and though given the chance to escape chose to stay and accept his punishment. According to Socrates, death is the will of the Gods and they alone know what lies after death. Mankind does not have the ability to acquire such knowledge, and therefore the afterlife is unknown to man. Socrates believes that individuals fear death because they fear the unknown, he therefore concludes that "fear of death is indeed the pretence of wisdom" (Plato, p. 3-4). Socrates gives two possible scenarios of what the afterlife may be like: "Either death is a state of nothingness and utter unconsciousness, or... there is a change and migration of the soul from this world to another" (Plato, p. 8). Socrates contends that there is no reason to fear an endless sleep, as it is a placid period which is pleasant to oneself."

Tags:death, epicurus, socrates

Abstract
This paper explores the history and role of religion in the Roman empire. The paper explains that Roman gods were considered patron deities of the Roman Republic, always looking out for its interests by helping out with agriculture when asked, or by advising legislature and battles. The paper concludes that the Roman religion started declining in the late third century BCE and eventually ceased to exist because of corruption within the religious leadership, and because the religion was used to further political means.

From the Paper
"Religion was apparent in all aspects of Roman public life, especially in areas concerning politics, where ritual and omens was seen as a faction of typical political procedure. Roman gods were considered patron deities of the Republic, always looking out for its interests by helping out with agriculture when bribed to, or by advising legislature and battles. Because it was shamelessly used as a political means, Roman religion was on the decline during the late third century BCE more so than a typical gradual shift. This apparent deterioration served to foreshadow the eventual decline of the Republic and then of the empire to come."

Tags:BCE, paganism, flamen, dialis

Abstract
Compares the relationships between Helen and Paris, Achilles and Partoclus and Zeus and Hera in the "Iliad" to show that there is more than warfare in the "Iliad", though all of these connections are comparable in lack of equality, reliance on sex and non-reliance on friendship.

From the Paper
""Rage- Goddess, sing the rage of Peleus' son Achilles" The epic poem The Iliad by Homer is a tale essentially based on destruction, war and glory. It focuses mainly on invasions and raids, and on the people involved who never cease until they are fully satisfied with their bounty of livestock, riches and women. Although these are the principal themes in the poem, Homer reveals another side of ancient Greek society when he portrays moments of affection shared between some of the characters throughout the brutal story. There are three main relationships in The Iliad that authenticate love: that between Helen and Paris, that between Achilles and Patroclus and that between Zeus and Hera. Obviously the relationships vary because one is between a man and a woman, another is between two men, and the last is between two gods, but there are more subtle differences that separate them as well. However, despite these differences, all three connections are linked by their lack of equality, by their reliance on sex and by their minimal need for friendship."

Tags:achilles, ancient, greek, helen, hera, paris, patroclus, zeus

Abstract
This paper examines Plato's "The Phaedo" and argues that Socrates gives three compelling reasons why the study of philosophy is valuable in itself. The paper outlines these three reasons as follows: it clarifies what we know, it provides guidelines of inquiry for what we seek to know and it allows an individual to cultivate wisdom, the highest of virtues.

From the Paper
"In The Phaedo, Plato has Socrates discuss a number of philosophically important issues. Among them, Socrates forwards an account of being, an account of learning and knowledge, and an account of value; namely, the value of studying philosophy. Notwithstanding a person's agreement with any of the doctrines that Plato describes (i.e. the theory of the Forms, the theory of recollection, and the ethical value theory of learning philosophy), it can be shown that Plato's philosophy is a perfect example of the transcendent value that philosophy possesses. The theories he propounds demonstrate how philosophy helps to clarify what we know and what is valuable; it is also instrumental in successfully discovering and/or inventing rational standards by which we may adjudicate various factual and ethical claims. Finally, it is the archetypal method for cultivating wisdom, unarguably a good in itself. In the process of exploring each of these claims, this essay will argue that philosophy is fundamental to understanding life (and death), and how one should live and die. In other words, the study of philosophy has value in and of itself."

Tags:argue, ethics, socrates, value

Abstract
This paper is a comparison between ancient Egyptian culture and more modern cultures. Comparisons are made with respect to the arts, architecture, cultural tradition, agriculture, art, religion, language, and several other areas.

From the Paper
"Ancient Egyptian religion, though it was quite different from that of modern religion, has proven to be quite influential on modern society. Dating back as far as the fifth millennia BC, the period which was characterized by the development of the calender. The calender was important to religion because it was based on the documentation of religious feasts.1 The calendar eventually evolved into its present form but it was the early Egyptian version that became the basis of documenting time. The Egyptians, much like other cultures, believed in the existence of higher beings(Gods of the earth, air, and heavens).2 Much like the Egyptians, most modern day religions are all based on the worship of a spiritual presence, giving reason to believe that the study of Egyptian religion is what has influenced the worship of other God's throughout history. Another point to make about the influence of Egyptian religion is that religion was the central part of their lives for the most part,3 much like the way it is for people of the church and monks today. Other aspects of ancient Egyptian religion that can be viewed as influential could be the fact that they worshiped in temples,4 comparable to the churches and temples of today. A final point of interest with respect to ancient Egyptian religion is that they Visutskie 3 actually dealt with the idea of death and resurrection thousands of years before the Christians did with Jesus Christ. Egyptians actually celebrated the feast of Easter with the death, burial, and disappearance of their King, Osiris, on a Friday, and to celebrate his resurrection three days later, on the Sunday. The Christian celebration of Easter is, in fact, an exact replica of the Egyptian Easter with respect to time, details, theme, and objective.5 Aside from religion, perhaps the most influential part of Egyptian culture on modern culture is that of the architecture."

Tags:agriculture, art, comparison, culture, language, pharoah, pyramid, religion, tomb

Abstract
This essay outlines Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul between 59 and 51 B.C. It outlines major points and battles and, more specifically, centers on how his conquests affected his standing in Rome and his rise to power. The paper also examines Caesar's commentaries on the great battle, "The Conquest of Gaul".

From the Paper
"Instances such as these show Caesar at his finest. With courage and enthusiasm Caesar routinely fought in the front ranks with his troops - leading by example to rally them. They won the battle of Sambre. Out of the force of 60,000 that came against the Romans, only 600 soldiers remained. Furthermore, the Conquest of Gaul not only showed his ability as a leader but also the type of man he was. Caesar was proud to be Roman, and his pride reveals itself in his commentaries. Caesar's commentaries were, in themselves, a reflection of that pride. To Pompey after having his command in Gaul revoked Caesar wrote, ?The glory of Rome has ever been my first object, dearer indeed than life itself.? Rome's will was his ambition."

Tags:Rome, Pompey, Sulla, Marius, Bellovaci

Abstract
Beginning with a definition of the term renaissance, this paper explores, through specific examples of writing, art and architecture, how and why the Italian renaissance may be characterized as a glorification of human power and human activity. Petrarch and his contemporaries are presented as examples of a return to classical idealism in Europe. Further, an exploration of the dignity of man, as well as renaissance art and architecture are detailed, giving weight to the paper's thesis. Specific art examples discussed in the paper include the Merode Altarpiece (1425-1428) by Master of Flemalle, Michelangelo Buonarrotis' David and Bramante's Tempietto.

From the Paper
"The Renaissance, from the French word renaissance and the Italian word rinascita, both meaning rebirth, is considered by some to have officially begun in 1341 when Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was crowned in Rome with the Laurel wreath, the ancient symbol of victory and merit. Petrarch, as one of the first humanist writers, explored modern life through the lens of the ancient Romans and Greeks. Both Petrarch and his contemporary Boccaccio (1313-1375) "were famous in their own day as poets, scholars and men of letters - their achievements equivalent in honor to those of the heroes of civic virtue." As the word humanism suggests, the principle concerns of its advocates were human values and human interests, which are distinct from, but not entirely opposed to, the other worldly values of Christianity."

Tags:bramante, merode, michelangelo, petrarch

Abstract
This paper explains how, through analysis of Caesar's "The Conquest of Gaul", among other works, one may begin to put together an explanation as to why and how Julius Caesar was so successful in defeating his enemies in such a routine fashion. It shows that, although Caesar has been subject to many subsequent criticisms about the embellishments of his campaigns in his own work, and even his military abilities at the tactical level, his feats are simply too astounding and too well-documented and praised to go unnoticed.

From the Paper
"Caesar's campaigns in Gaul began in fifty-eight BC when the Helvetii, among other peoples, began a mass migration from their homes in Switzerland. Caesar declined their request to pass through Roman territory due to the fact that the Helvetii had killed Roman consul, Lucius Visutskie 2 Cassius, years previous. For this reason, Caesar viewed the Helvetii as a threat to the well-being of their allies, the Sequani and the Aedui, who had been loyal to Rome in the past, and whose territory the Helvetii wished to pass through.3 Since the Helvetii had burned their own towns and villages to the ground, Caesar viewed them as even more dangerous since they had nowhere to retreat to, thus, they would be more willing to face the consequences that resulted from any of their actions.4 Despite Caesar's refusal for the Helvetii to travel through Roman territory, they marched anyway. Caesar reacted to this manoeuver posthaste. By the time Caesar's army had reached the Helvetii army, they had already pillaged the towns and fields of the Aedui and the Sequani, and taken all of their children into slavery.5 This infuriated Caesar, he planned a careful attack on the Helvetii, determined to make them pay. Caesar first attacked a small portion of the Helvetii, whom had not yet crossed the Saone River with the rest of the army, and ravaged them, making somewhat of an example of them. Caesar caught up with the rest of the Helvetii tribe days later and damaged them more in a grueling battle which ended with the retreat of a hundred and thirty thousand Helvetii soldiers. Caesar intelligently sent messages to other allied settlements where the Helvetii could surface, warning them not to provide the Helvetii with food or shelter as they would become the enemy of the Romans if they did. Due to lack of food and nutrition, the Helvetii surrendered within three days and were divided into several groups in accordance with Caesar's wishes.6 Thus, the first campaign of Caesar's conquest into Gaul was not really intended to be a victory for Caesar, and a step in expanding the Roman Empire, but more or less a gesture of assistance to a group who had remained loyal to Rome over many years(as understood by the writings of Caesar himself). Besides being successful in getting the Helvetii out of Rome, Caesar also was quite successful in removing Ariovistus from Roman territory."

Tags:ancient, army, battle, history, imperial, roman, rome, triumvirate

Abstract
This paper is a discussion of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan as the greatest rulers of all time, arguing that Alexander the Great was the greater ruler. It compares and contrasts the empires of both. The armies and military strategies of the two are also discussed.

From the Paper
"Both men developed large empires and although Genghis' empire was larger, Alexander's proved to be more influential to civilizations and empires to come. Alexander had inherited his throne from his father Philip of Macedonia in 356BC at the age of 20. He continued in his father's campaign to rid Greece of the Persians, but he did not stop there. In the span of four years he had conquered all of Persia. By the time of his death, his empire spanned from the Adriatic Sea to India. His main objective was to create a common cultural exchange throughout the world. Due to the extensive trade routes in highly populated areas of that time, he was able to achieve his goal. He succeeded in establishing Greek as the universal language and was able to pass the Greek culture to other countries."

Tags:genghis, khan