Abstract
This paper describes the use of the word "like" in its two least popular meaning among English lovers and most common form among English speakers: the quotative, as in "and I was like, 'what?'", and the hedge word, as in "I like bombed on that exam". The author points out that, although she feels embarrassed about how her use of the word affects people's perception of her intelligence, she feels very strongly, as others do, that the current uses of the word "like" have very real, even innovative, purposes. The paper relates that the ability of "like" to indirectly quote or relay speech, behavior and thought with one word sets it apart from other words with similar functions. The author states that she sometimes uses the word to be purposely and purposefully imprecise. The paper concludes that informal usages of the English language help communicate sincerity and friendliness and demonstrate a natural process for the standard to eventually become archaic.

From the Paper
"But, despite what Lily Thorns may like to believe, the quotative and hedge-word "like" were not born of wealthy teenaged girls from Southern California in the 1980s. In the 1962 novel "A Clockwork Orange" by English author Anthony Burgess, the hedge-work "like" is also frequently used by the narrator, Alex - a young man of high intelligence, in fact. The usage is not exclusively American. I also notice it was used by my aunt and uncle, both of whom are in their 50s and were born and raised in Manchester (as was Anthony Burgess, for that matter), as a hedge word--although usually at the end of their sentences, much like the hedge-phrase "as it were". "

Tags:popular, archaic, function, emphasis, grammaticalization

Abstract
Second Language Acquisition is a field of inquiry that abounds in theories, while at the same time no single approach has adequately explained how language acquisition takes place. One reason for this might be that linguists interested in SLA have been trained in different disciplines, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. The paper explains that, naturally, they have approached SLA from very different perspectives and treat all the variables involved in the learning process differently. The situation appears to be very confusing and frustrating. All the present theories, hypotheses, and models are all preliminary work done toward the ultimate goal of a true theory. The paper shows that in this sense, the different approaches taken by linguists and researchers are never worthless. They have uncovered bits and pieces of the whole complexity of language acquisition. Hopefully, the continuing and combined efforts made by linguists and researchers will lead to the ultimate success of establishing the true theory in language acquisition as well as in SLA.

From the Paper
"Linguistics is one of the newest fields of scientific inquiry. It was developed into an independent discipline of social science in the United Sates first "as an offshoot of anthropology" in the first half of the twentieth century in an attempt to investigate into the disappearing American indigenous languages (Lakoff, 2000, p. 2-3). Traditionally, it has been concerned with the analysis of language, namely its phonology, morphology and syntax. Following this tradition, Norm Chomsky in the 1950s put forward his milestone transformational generative grammar (TGG), which assumed "an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community" unaffected by any external factors in his exploration of the Universal Grammar (UG), the general rules of language (Chomsky, 1965, p.3). This is basically an asocial or theoretical view in linguistic studies as opposed to the social view which claims knowing a language also means "knowing how to use that language"(Wardhaugh, 2002, p.3) in social contexts. Adopting either or both of the two views, linguistics and researchers alike have postulated a multitude of theories, approaches, and models in the inquiry into the nature of language and language acquisition, which appear to be conflicting ones fighting against one another."

Tags:Noam, Chomsky, Universal, Grammar, TGG, Connectionism, CAH

Abstract
This paper studies the critical period hypothesis which suggests that languages cannot be learned after the age of twelve. However, an evaluation of evidence from many different sources suggests that this is not accurate. It examines sources such as: Studies of second language learning methods, wild children studies and the theories of Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen. Factors which make it easier for children to learn language, such as parentheses, are also discussed.

From the Paper
"The "critical period" hypothesis cites a commonly observable phenomenon, the fact that children find language learning much easier than adults, and learn language remarkably quickly, to claim that language learning is more difficult, or impossible after puberty. The concept of "critical periods" was initially introduced in the study of animal behavior, where it was noticed that certain behavioral responses only emerged when stimulus was given within a particular time frame. This concept has been applied to many species, including humans, with regard to the development of specific emotional responses such as stress. In 1967 Lenneberg proposed that this concept also applied to human linguistic development, seeing language as a response, and exposure to language as the stimulus. There are two versions of this hypothesis: the "strong" version, which claims that no language acquisition is possible after puberty, and the "weak" version, which maintains that language learning will be much more difficult. A distinction is often made between "language acquisition", the way in which children unconsciously learn their native tongue, and "language learning" which implies formal instruction, and Lenneberg maintains this distinction himself."

Tags:chomsky, immersion, krashen, language, learning, linguistics, pinker, second, teaching

Abstract
Based on a substantial amount of empirical research conducted on second language acquisition, it has been theorized that learners are best able to achieve the critical skill of learning a second language at some point fairly early in their maturational development. This claim is known as the "critical period hypothesis," which postulates that there is some maturational period for language learning that maximizes one's degree of proficiency in the language beyond that of other maturational periods. This study examines whether the critical period during which children are best able to learn English as a second language is before six years or age. To this end, the study compares the English proficiency levels of two groups of eighth grade ESL learners, a group that had begun to learn English before they were six years of age and a group that had begun to learn English after six years of age. Because the nature of language required in school is complex, a fairly complex assessment was made of English proficiency, namely English proficiency was assessed using the Quick-Start in English Written Language Assessment (QSE). The study shows that there are higher proficiency levels for those children who learned English before six than for those children who learned it after six years of age.

Table of Contents:
The Problem
Background
Problem Statement
Significance
Limitations
Null Hypothesis
Review of the Literature
Introduction
Critical Period Hypothesis and the Best Age of Second
Language Learning: The Pertinent Research
Conclusions
Subjects, Materials and Methods
The Setting
Subjects
Materials
Methods
Methods Used To Obtain Permission To Conduct Research
Data Gathering Methods
The Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendix A
Letter Mailed From Researcher to Supervisor
Appendix B
Letter From Supervisor
Appendix C
Letter Sent to Mark's Middle School Principal
Appendix D
Letter received from Mark's Middle School Principal

From the Paper
"While many claims have been made as to what precise age/age group constitutes the critical period, some recent research conducted in Germany, Doll (1996) stated that this critical period takes place during kindergarten or first grade. In other words, the period occurs sometime before the child is six years of age. What is interesting about Doll's findings is that they are in conflict with the majority of the earlier research in the area; this research tending to show that the critical period for effectively learning a second language is between the ages of eight and ten years (Bialystok, 1997)."

Tags:cognitive, development, vocabulary

Abstract
This paper describes the evolution of the word humour from its early appearance as a Latin noun through the ages with several references to works by Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeare.

From the Paper
""Humour," according to Adrian Room's Dictionary of Changes in Meaning, is one of the most renowned words in the English language for its radical semantic shift (143). It is a descendant of the Latin noun umor, "moisture," which is related to the verbs umere "to be wet" and uvescere "to become wet"; and adjective umidus "wet" (Shipley, 441). The addition of the letter h to the beginning of the word is the result of an incorrect folk association to the Latin humus, which means earth or soil (Klein, 750; Harper).
"Its Indo-European root is ugw- and wegw- for "wet, moist, to sprinkle" (Klein, 750; Claiborne). The Old Norse wegw led to the expression "in its wake" from the Germanic *wakw- , "wet spot," referring to a crack in the ice. It has been suggested that its suffixed zero-grade form *ugw-sm is the base of the Latin humere. The suffixed zero-grade form *ugw-no led to the Greek hygros, "wet, liquid" (Watkins). Other words coming from the same root include the Armenian oyc, "fresh," and the Old Norse vokr, "moist, damp" (Klein, 750)."

Tags:root, language, meaning

Abstract
This essay begins with a quotation taken from the Bible, describing the story of the Tower of Babel. It then proceeds to break down language, from its origins through its evolution down to modern times. It attempts to portray that although Babel is a myth, its premise is true-all language and thus people were cut from essentially the same cloth.

From the Paper
?And the Lord said, ?Indeed the people are one and they all have one language, and this is what they begin to do; now nothing that they propose to do will be withheld from them. Come, let Us go down and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.?? (Genesis 11:6-7) It is the humans? ability to communicate through spoken word which differentiates us from our primitive counterparts. The legend of Babel identifies language as the tie that binds a society together and denotes a direct correlation between language and the advancement of a particular society. According to tradition, after the Lord destroyed the world by flood, the sons of Noah, who spoke one language and who were descendants of the same origin, were given the task to repopulate the earth. Perpetually plagued by the sins of Adam, they were driven to build a tower so great that they themselves would be seen as gods. Therefore the Lord debilitated them by removing their ability to communicate with one another, which forced them to diverge into separate, distinct societies. Although the story grossly over simplifies both the complex history of man and the evolution of language, its premise does have some merit. Popular modern languages can be traced ancestrally to a few families. Furthermore, languages that have survived - English as the most prominent example - are considerably indebted to the influence of the powerful societies that spoke them."

Tags:babel, bible, comparsion, english, european, indo, language, myths, stories

From the Paper
"The work of Noam Chomsky overturned all former approaches to language, from ancient Greeks to those of his own teachers, and challenged assumptions about linguistic research, including both empiricist and nonempiricist methods (Newmeyer 1986:66). One of modern linguistics most influential contributors, Noam Chomsky, rose from a humble background to not only add fresh insight, but to revolutionize the way the world thought of linguistics as a discipline. Chomsky is a renowned professor of linguistics at MIT, in addition to being one of North America's most prominent political dissidents; he has authored over 30 political books dissecting such issues as U.S. intervention in the developing world, the political economy of human rights and the propaganda role of corporate media. This care for the unvoiced people of the world shines through in his theory of the innateness and creativity of language. Through a careful look at Chomsky's life, philosophy of language, and contribution to the field of linguistics, one can see his overwhelming power over the now widely accepted notions regarding the discipline. His substantial addition to the field cannot be overlooked in a survey of linguistics, for he single-handedly created numerous breakthroughs in theories and research styles."

Tags:language, linguistics

Abstract
This paper examines the globalization of culture and how the American popular culture shapes it. It investigates how economic dominance, communications technologies, social and political events influence global mass media. The paper also describes the role of the English language in creating a single world culture.

From the Paper
"When we look at the dominant form of culture that characterizes our society today, it is often referred to as "globalization." But to many, this idea of a unified world is characterized by the concept of "Americanization." To a large extent, the shared culture around the world is becoming more and more influenced by American culture. There are many reasons for this, but primarily these are the result of the economic dominance of that nation, the development of global systems of communication, and the spread of English as the new international language. The following paper will address all of these issues in order to fully understand the reasons why the United States has a stranglehold on the global market in mass culture."

Tags:americanization, globalization

Abstract
This paper tidentifies and analyzes the important contributions made by Noam Chomsky to the field of lingusitics. It looks at important concepts such as generative grammar, I-language and universal grammar. The resistance to the behaviorist approach to understanding language is ultimately linked to his anti-establishment politics.

From the Paper
"The idea of universal grammar is a central one to Chomsky's linguistic theory. Inherent to this idea is the concept that human beings are equipped with a distinct language faculty in our minds; this faculty is governed by an innate understanding of universal grammar, "All the minds of human beings include the principles that movement is structure-dependent and that heads are on certain sides of phrases; they are part of the common Universal Grammar. It is not relevant to UG theory that English has a particular set of properties, French another, German another; what matters is what they have in common" (Cook & Newson, 1996, p. 32)."

Tags:anti, counterculture, establishment, generative, grammar, language, politics, universal

Abstract
The paper shows that when we think about communication, we think about the spoken word and that our thoughts are always about the words people use and their fluency of speech. Yet, at the same time, we are also taking in information from nonlinguistic sources. The author notes that people's mannerisms, clothing, and appearance are also important, as well as their tone of voice. Researches have estimated that, in face-to-face communication, as much as 90 percent of the social meaning may be carried in the nonverbal message and that facial appearance and response may contribute more to our meaning of their message than all their words. The paper explores the importance of both types of communication and how they are put across.

From the Paper
"As popularly used, language refers to a system of words. This development is not surprising, since words distinguish human communication from that of lower animals. Words, as symbols, usually convey information in a quite deliberate, no instinctive way. For this reason, language is sometimes treated as a set of verbal symbols."

Tags:symbol, coding, culture, language