Abstract
The article outlines the development of forensic science over the past 50 years and its growing contribution to crime solving. It also presents some case studies of court cases and deals with the roll of forensic evidence in the courtroom. The author points out that until DNA testing was introduced in the early 1980s the main form of forensic identification was fingerprinting which is not accepted by all as valid evidence.

From the Paper
"Though forensic science has been aiding police work for a long time, it is only in the last two decades that it gained any real prominence. With better technologies being adopted by police departments worldwide, forensic evidence stands a better chance of entering formal investigations. But while these technologies have helped accentuate the significance of forensic science, they have also played a dominant role in discrediting forensic evidence. For example finger printing which is the oldest form of forensic evidence is widely being considered part of junk science that should be kept out of the court. Similarly no case involving DNA matching as primary evidence has ever made it to the Supreme Court in the United States."

Tags:fingerprint, DNA, innocence

Abstract
This paper examines the mental faculty of recovered memory and the neurological mechanisms involved in retaining and recalling past experiences. It takes a particular look at the controversy among psychologists regarding repressed memory and whether or not it actually exists. The paper asserts that much scientific research supports the validity of repressed memory. The paper also points out, however, that this research does not address whether repressed memories are true or false, such as in the case of testimonies when dealing with abuses or crimes. The paper concludes that such accounts should indeed be taken very seriously and should be critically examined in relation to other evidence.

From the Paper
"False memories are memories that were distorted or even created within and outside of the therapeutic context. Patients with psychological distress see a therapist as a source of help in their search for an "effort at meaning" (Clansy, cited in Furtado, 2003). Patients' memory is extremely susceptible that the subtlest suggestion made by a doctor can alter or create false experiences such as memories of abuse. They can be created by the use of several techniques, such as recovered memory therapy, hypnosis, guided imagery, and dream interpretation (Davis, Loftus, & Follette, 2001). An experiment carried out by Dr. Nader and Dr. Shafe may give a neurobiological insight into how memories are updated. Using the fear conditioning process, they trained rats to associate a tone with an electric shock. Once the memory was consolidated, they presented the tone and immediately injected a drug that would inhibit the production of proteins. The fact that the animals reacted instead of freezing at the sound implied that the memories became vulnerable to suggestions, and that the production of new proteins were needed to store them back into long-term storage (Blakeslee, 2000)."

Tags:recall, neurology, brain

Abstract
This paper focuses on six Supreme Court cases in the history of search and seizure, and explores how the concepts evolved through these cases in trial and error fashion. The author discusses such landmark cases as Terry v. Ohio, Adams v. Williams, and INS v. Delgado. The paper looks at what now constitutes reasonable searches, totality of the circumstances, and probable cause.

From the Paper
"Search and seizure is protected by the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution. A series of cases, beginning in the 1960s and continuing to the present, have dealt with the United States Supreme Court's interpretation of the Fourth Amendment involving citizens' rights in search and seizure cases."

Tags:citizens, constitution, court, frisk, law, rights, states, stop, supreme, tort, united, warrant, terry, ohio, adams, williams, delgado

Abstract
This paper discusses the history and constitutional development of the "Automobile Exception" to the search warrant requirement of the Fourth Amendment which originated in 1924. The automobile exception allows police officers to search and seize a vehicle without a search warrant. It cites several relevant cases such as New York vs.Belton, California vs. Camey and their legal precedents.

From the Paper
"A woman and a man are sitting on a park bench chatting. A police officer approaches and notices a syringe in the man's shirt pocket. The officer asks the man why he has a syringe, and the man replies that he uses it to take drugs. The officer seizes a handbag that is close to the woman; he proceeds to search the handbag and removes the contents including her wallet and identification. Under the current law, this search would violate the Fourth Amendment since the officer did not first obtain a search warrant. However, in Wyoming v. Houghton', the United States Supreme Court held that a similar search was not a violation of the Fourth Amendment. The only difference was that the man and woman were in an automobile, and the search fell under an exception to the Fourth Amendment, commonly called the automobile exception", which was created in 1924 in the case Carroll vs. The United States. The automobile exception is an exception to the Fourth Amendment which eliminates the need for a search warrant when there is probable cause to believe that an automobile contains contraband or instruments/evidence of criminal activity. This paper will examine the history of the automobile exception and important cases that have involved and shaped this constitutional exception."

Tags:arrests, constitution, crime, illegal, police, rights, search, seizure, vehicles, warrants

Abstract
This paper examines the use of forensic science in police investigations through the example of the JonBenet Ramsey murder case. The paper describes that forensic evidence is widely used by investigators in homicide cases, in order to gather clues from available physical evidence. It illustrates through the JonBenet case that apparently insignificant pieces of evidence found through forensic methods can help in pointing out possible suspects when no other tangible proof is available.

From the Paper
"JonBenet Ramsey murder took place on Christmas night in 1996 but even after more than five years of investigations, no charges have been levied and no indictment has been made. During the initial investigations too, it was clear that police and other investigation agencies did not have ample evidence to find out who the real killer was, even though fingers were pointed at several people including the Ramsey family members. Due to insufficient tangible evidence, crime-investigation branches were forced to take help of forensic testing, something which many view with skepticism. Forensic evidence refers to detailed analysis of things found at the murder scene including apparently vague and elusive pieces of evidence such as hair, fingerprints, body fluids, handwriting etc."

Tags:dna, fingerprint, physical, evidence, science, police, handwriting, proof

From the Paper
"In 1968, the U.S. Supreme Court announced a new standard for police conduct in the landmark case of Terry v. Ohio. Chief Justice Warren, writing for the majority, held that police did not need "probable cause" to stop and frisk a citizen on the street. Instead, the Court imposed a lesser standard, called "reasonable suspicion." The Supreme Court has revisited this issue many times in the intervening three decades. This paper will examine those cases, and the extent to which the justices followed Terry in writing subsequent "stop and frisk" opinions.

The Terry decision created an exception to the law of arrest, which is rooted in the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The Fourth Amendment requires probable cause for a lawful arrest. If a court determines that the police lacked probable cause, the remedy is to invalidate the arrest and..."

Tags:supreme, court

Abstract
This paper discusses the roles of hair and fibers as physical evidence in forensic science. It concentrates on the physical composition, identification methods, recovery techniques and implications as evidence. This forensic science research paper also provides an analytical discussion of the implications that the various methods have in the field of criminology.

From the Paper
"Hair and fibers are superficially similar. They may frequently be found together as trace evidence, and the methods of studying them are often similar. In fact, hair and fibers are quite different: Hair as an appendage of human or animal skin, growing out of an organ known as the hair follicle; fibers are strands of natural or manufactured material. Some animal-hair coverings such as wool and mohair are classified as natural fibers, but such issues of terminology are just that and do not affect the process of identification. Although hair is discovered as evidence at many crime scenes and often appears on the bodies of victims of violence, it represents class or general evidence, rather than individual evidence. One person's hair cannot yet be individualized to the exclusion of anyone else, although DNA research, which involves testing the root of the hair, may make near individualization possible. Hair is valuable evidence and much can be learned from a few strands. It also resists chemical decomposition and retains its structural features for a long time. In contrast to hair, fibers and cloth fragments offer much greater evidential value because they incorporate numerous variables. These include the number of fibers in each strand, the diameter of strands and fibers, the direction and number of twists, the type of weave, the dye content, as well as the presence of any foreign material that may be adherent to fibers or embedded among them."

Tags:clothing, crime, dna, follicles, investigation

Abstract
This paper contrasts the various fingerprint recovery techniques, including physical, laser and chemical development and examines their advantages and disadvantages. The paper provides a detailed discussion of the fundamental principles of fingerprint analysis as used in forensic science. The importance of fingerprint analysis and its relevance and value as evidence are also main topics presented in the paper.

From the Paper
"Surface conditions, color and texture all play a role in the determination that the technician makes as to which method of analysis would be most suitable. Fingerprints are of three varieties: visible, plastic and latent. Visible fingerprints are those in which the fingers are covered, for example with blood or paint touch a wall, door frame, or similar surface. Plastic fingerprints are those left in soft substances such as soap or putty. The most common are latent (invisible) prints, which can be detected by using powders, chemicals or lasers. (Conklin, Gardner, and Shortelle 2002: 112) There are numerous ways to retrieve fingerprints and depending on the situation, one method may be more successful than another."

Tags:crime, evidence, identification, laser, physical

Abstract
This paper lays out how DNA has become a vital tool is criminal investigations. Areas that are discussed are how even with the smallest drop of blood it can link a suspect to a crime. The paper shows how the use of DNA database evidence also assists in solving old crimes by linking a suspect. As the technology continues to change DNA will be extracted from many other areas such as even fingerprint oils. DNA testing has accomplished a great deal in opening up new sources of forensic evidence, its full potential to identify perpetrators and exonerate people falsely convicted has yet to be realized.

From the Paper
"First developed in England in 1985, DNA testing takes advantage of the fact that, with the exception of identical twins, the genetic material of each person is unique. DNA is the chemical deoxyribonucleic acid, which carries the genetic code of each human's body, the genetic blueprint we inherit from our parents. DNA, while not actually a part of saliva, urine, perspiration or tears, is found in one place, the nucleus of cells. Since these cells are found in all bodily fluids, tissue and hair, DNA is an omnipresent residue that trails us wherever we go. These physical properties of DNA have made it an important tool in fighting crime."

Tags:biological, crime, criminal, evidence, fbi, forensics, investigations, justice, police, victims

Abstract
This paper explains that the introduction of DNA evidence has become the cornerstone of many forms of criminal investigations especially for sexual assault and murder. Nonetheless, DNA evidence still has its drawbacks. The author provides a basic understanding of DNA and the ways DNA is used as evidence at crime scenes. The paper points out the issue of privacy, the need for collaboration even when DNA associated with the accused is found, and the difficulty of explaining the complicated DNA procedures to a jury. The paper stresses that the use of DNA is most significant in the area of exonerating previously convicted individuals who were sentenced based on inaccurate eyewitness testimony or other faults of the investigation process.

From the Paper
"One of the controversial advancements that has come along with the use of DNA evidence is the development of DNA databases, which store the DNA of convicted criminals from previous cases. It is very similar to the fingerprint databases that exist, only these databases store the electronic print out of a person's DNA. The controversy occurs over the desire of some political groups to include all humans in these databases and not simply criminals. Additionally, some even object to the database at all, regardless of who's DNA it contains, as they believe it is an invasion of privacy."

Tags:unique, databases, privacy, regions, exoneration