Abstract
Logical fallacies are methods of argumentation or persuasion that, in simplest terms, look or sound good, but do not stand up to critical analysis. This paper explains that, although there are more, three very commonly used examples of logical fallacies are 'straw man', 'equivocation' and 'ad hominem'. It shows how these fallacies are frequently used to get people to agree to desired proposals or plans. They are often used when those doing the proposing either are not sure their facts are strong enough to get cooperation or those doing the proposing are sure that people will not agree because the proposals are not honest/necessary or useful to begin with.

From the Paper
"The straw man fallacy includes such approaches as stereotyping, caricaturing, name-calling, slanted language or deck-stacking. Basically the idea is to portray your opponent as weak so that your own arguments look stronger. Reporting the opposing views in overly simplified terms or in concepts that are absurd are relied on to make the opinion or position offered by those employing the technique, seem stronger and more sensible."

Tags:argumentation, persuasion, opposition

From the Paper
"Nativist Theories of Second Language Acquisition: Noam Chomsky

Introduction
According to Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991), nativist theories posit the existence of a specific, innate biological capacity or organ that makes learning possible. Some of those nativist theories are specific to language acquisition, with Noam Chomsky perhaps the earliest and foremost exponent of the theory that language acquisition follows a universal pattern based on an innate language organ, or system of hard-wiring within the brain.

Noam Chomsky and Universal Grammar

Chomsky became most visible in his struggles with the researchers who were working with chimpanzees and gorillas to ..."

Abstract
Second Language Acquisition is a field of inquiry that abounds in theories, while at the same time no single approach has adequately explained how language acquisition takes place. One reason for this might be that linguists interested in SLA have been trained in different disciplines, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. The paper explains that, naturally, they have approached SLA from very different perspectives and treat all the variables involved in the learning process differently. The situation appears to be very confusing and frustrating. All the present theories, hypotheses, and models are all preliminary work done toward the ultimate goal of a true theory. The paper shows that in this sense, the different approaches taken by linguists and researchers are never worthless. They have uncovered bits and pieces of the whole complexity of language acquisition. Hopefully, the continuing and combined efforts made by linguists and researchers will lead to the ultimate success of establishing the true theory in language acquisition as well as in SLA.

From the Paper
"Linguistics is one of the newest fields of scientific inquiry. It was developed into an independent discipline of social science in the United Sates first "as an offshoot of anthropology" in the first half of the twentieth century in an attempt to investigate into the disappearing American indigenous languages (Lakoff, 2000, p. 2-3). Traditionally, it has been concerned with the analysis of language, namely its phonology, morphology and syntax. Following this tradition, Norm Chomsky in the 1950s put forward his milestone transformational generative grammar (TGG), which assumed "an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community" unaffected by any external factors in his exploration of the Universal Grammar (UG), the general rules of language (Chomsky, 1965, p.3). This is basically an asocial or theoretical view in linguistic studies as opposed to the social view which claims knowing a language also means "knowing how to use that language"(Wardhaugh, 2002, p.3) in social contexts. Adopting either or both of the two views, linguistics and researchers alike have postulated a multitude of theories, approaches, and models in the inquiry into the nature of language and language acquisition, which appear to be conflicting ones fighting against one another."

Tags:Noam, Chomsky, Universal, Grammar, TGG, Connectionism, CAH

Abstract
This paper studies the critical period hypothesis which suggests that languages cannot be learned after the age of twelve. However, an evaluation of evidence from many different sources suggests that this is not accurate. It examines sources such as: Studies of second language learning methods, wild children studies and the theories of Noam Chomsky and Stephen Krashen. Factors which make it easier for children to learn language, such as parentheses, are also discussed.

From the Paper
"The "critical period" hypothesis cites a commonly observable phenomenon, the fact that children find language learning much easier than adults, and learn language remarkably quickly, to claim that language learning is more difficult, or impossible after puberty. The concept of "critical periods" was initially introduced in the study of animal behavior, where it was noticed that certain behavioral responses only emerged when stimulus was given within a particular time frame. This concept has been applied to many species, including humans, with regard to the development of specific emotional responses such as stress. In 1967 Lenneberg proposed that this concept also applied to human linguistic development, seeing language as a response, and exposure to language as the stimulus. There are two versions of this hypothesis: the "strong" version, which claims that no language acquisition is possible after puberty, and the "weak" version, which maintains that language learning will be much more difficult. A distinction is often made between "language acquisition", the way in which children unconsciously learn their native tongue, and "language learning" which implies formal instruction, and Lenneberg maintains this distinction himself."

Tags:chomsky, immersion, krashen, language, learning, linguistics, pinker, second, teaching

Abstract
The paper introduces the book, "America's Longest War: United States and Vietnam 1950-1975", by George C. Herring. Specifically, it discusses three topics from Chapter 6 and then explains each according to what the author writes. It also looks at how the Vietnam War is being compared increasingly to the current war with Iraq and how, as this chapter clearly shows, there are many reasons for the comparison. It shows how President Johnson began fighting an uphill battle as public opinion about the war began to swing against it, just as President Bush is facing growing opposition to the war with Iraq.

From the Paper
""The President's Decisions." President Johnson, partly on advice from such advisers as Clifford, Westmoreland, and Bunker, decided in late 1967 that new forces should not be sent to South Vietnam, and the country should be more prepared to fight on its own. The author writes, "Johnson's advisers agreed that from a long-range standpoint the key to achieving American objectives was south Vietnam's ability to stand on its own" (Herring 239). By early 1968, the President had informed South Vietnam that we would continue to send assistance and equipment, but "limited manpower." During this time, President Johnson also agreed, heavily leaning on the advice of Dean Rusk, that bombing in Vietnam should be cut back, and peace talks should open again with the North Vietnamese. It seems that many of the President's decisions were based on guidance from his closest advisors, and somewhat on public opinion."

Tags:iraq, president, johnson

Abstract
This paper argues that language and ideology are inseparable due to the reciprocally constitutive nature of both. The paper looks at major works by Saussure, Levi-Strauss, Barthes, Derrida, Lacan, Marx, and Althusser to explore how linguistic representation must be understood as constructed and mediated. In order to shed some light on language's relation to ideology, the paper begins with a look at how language is formulated from a material perspective.

From the Paper
"To understand its relation to ideology, we must first examine how language is formulated from a material perspective. According to Ferdinand de Saussure's seminal analysis of the structure of words and their associated meanings, the former is never a transparent indicator of the latter. In his Course in General Linguistics, Saussure maintained that language should be divided into two components: "langue," referring to the entire body of a language, and "parole," referring to a specific utterance or individual act of speech within a language. The latter can only be comprehended within the larger system of the former. That is, the meaning of words or "signs" is derived from their relation to one another within a cumulative structure or system of signification. To illustrate this principle, Saussure drew a clearly discernable distinction between the "signifier," or word, and the "signified," or that to which the word refers or claims to represent. For example, the word "tree" is only indicative of the external, material object of a tree insofar as we believe and regard it to be. The word "tree" can just as easily be applied to other external, material objects. In this way, the formation of words and their meanings is an entirely artificial, constructed, and enclosed relation."

Tags:linguistics, mythology, literature, communication

Abstract
This paper tidentifies and analyzes the important contributions made by Noam Chomsky to the field of lingusitics. It looks at important concepts such as generative grammar, I-language and universal grammar. The resistance to the behaviorist approach to understanding language is ultimately linked to his anti-establishment politics.

From the Paper
"The idea of universal grammar is a central one to Chomsky's linguistic theory. Inherent to this idea is the concept that human beings are equipped with a distinct language faculty in our minds; this faculty is governed by an innate understanding of universal grammar, "All the minds of human beings include the principles that movement is structure-dependent and that heads are on certain sides of phrases; they are part of the common Universal Grammar. It is not relevant to UG theory that English has a particular set of properties, French another, German another; what matters is what they have in common" (Cook & Newson, 1996, p. 32)."

Tags:anti, counterculture, establishment, generative, grammar, language, politics, universal

Abstract
This essay begins with a quotation taken from the Bible, describing the story of the Tower of Babel. It then proceeds to break down language, from its origins through its evolution down to modern times. It attempts to portray that although Babel is a myth, its premise is true-all language and thus people were cut from essentially the same cloth.

From the Paper
?And the Lord said, ?Indeed the people are one and they all have one language, and this is what they begin to do; now nothing that they propose to do will be withheld from them. Come, let Us go down and there confuse their language, that they may not understand one another's speech.?? (Genesis 11:6-7) It is the humans? ability to communicate through spoken word which differentiates us from our primitive counterparts. The legend of Babel identifies language as the tie that binds a society together and denotes a direct correlation between language and the advancement of a particular society. According to tradition, after the Lord destroyed the world by flood, the sons of Noah, who spoke one language and who were descendants of the same origin, were given the task to repopulate the earth. Perpetually plagued by the sins of Adam, they were driven to build a tower so great that they themselves would be seen as gods. Therefore the Lord debilitated them by removing their ability to communicate with one another, which forced them to diverge into separate, distinct societies. Although the story grossly over simplifies both the complex history of man and the evolution of language, its premise does have some merit. Popular modern languages can be traced ancestrally to a few families. Furthermore, languages that have survived - English as the most prominent example - are considerably indebted to the influence of the powerful societies that spoke them."

Tags:babel, bible, comparsion, english, european, indo, language, myths, stories

Abstract
This paper describes the use of the word "like" in its two least popular meaning among English lovers and most common form among English speakers: the quotative, as in "and I was like, 'what?'", and the hedge word, as in "I like bombed on that exam". The author points out that, although she feels embarrassed about how her use of the word affects people's perception of her intelligence, she feels very strongly, as others do, that the current uses of the word "like" have very real, even innovative, purposes. The paper relates that the ability of "like" to indirectly quote or relay speech, behavior and thought with one word sets it apart from other words with similar functions. The author states that she sometimes uses the word to be purposely and purposefully imprecise. The paper concludes that informal usages of the English language help communicate sincerity and friendliness and demonstrate a natural process for the standard to eventually become archaic.

From the Paper
"But, despite what Lily Thorns may like to believe, the quotative and hedge-word "like" were not born of wealthy teenaged girls from Southern California in the 1980s. In the 1962 novel "A Clockwork Orange" by English author Anthony Burgess, the hedge-work "like" is also frequently used by the narrator, Alex - a young man of high intelligence, in fact. The usage is not exclusively American. I also notice it was used by my aunt and uncle, both of whom are in their 50s and were born and raised in Manchester (as was Anthony Burgess, for that matter), as a hedge word--although usually at the end of their sentences, much like the hedge-phrase "as it were". "

Tags:popular, archaic, function, emphasis, grammaticalization

Abstract
This paper examines the globalization of culture and how the American popular culture shapes it. It investigates how economic dominance, communications technologies, social and political events influence global mass media. The paper also describes the role of the English language in creating a single world culture.

From the Paper
"When we look at the dominant form of culture that characterizes our society today, it is often referred to as "globalization." But to many, this idea of a unified world is characterized by the concept of "Americanization." To a large extent, the shared culture around the world is becoming more and more influenced by American culture. There are many reasons for this, but primarily these are the result of the economic dominance of that nation, the development of global systems of communication, and the spread of English as the new international language. The following paper will address all of these issues in order to fully understand the reasons why the United States has a stranglehold on the global market in mass culture."

Tags:americanization, globalization