Abstract
The paper discusses Rene Descartes's three skeptical doubts and the importance of skepticism in his philosophy. The paper explains that the exercise of skepticism is the backbone of Descartes's philosophical approach and is the defining element of his meditations, insofar as they revolve around the identification and examination of three doubts: the doubt in his own existence, the reality of God, and the existence of the outside world. The importance and implications of these doubts are discussed in the paper in the hope of illustrating that, if we want to arrive at certain knowledge and objective truth, we should begin, as Descartes did, by doubting.

From the Paper
"Descartes' third doubt is a natural extension of the first two and particularly interesting insofar as its conclusion is predetermined by the ones arrived at earlier. Quite simply stated, we know that we exist because we are thinking beings and ultimately, conclude that God exists because we have exercised our thinking abilities. However, the outside world is primarily communicated to us as an entity through multiple perceptions and perceptions, in themselves, cannot be accepted as certitudes insofar as they may be misled by the Evil Demon. Nevertheless, the proof for the existence of the external may ultimately emerge from our knowledge of it. Knowledge, insofar as it had earlier been defined by Descartes as indubitable and a product of good God, cannot, therefore be deceiving. Hence, the outside world exists."

Tags:existence, self, god

Abstract
Rene Descartes' method of doubt provides a powerful tool for attempting to determine the fundamental nature of reality. The paper analyzes Meditations I and II, where Descartes uses the Method of Doubt in order to attempt to determine which beliefs and opinions are true. It shows that in order to do this, Descartes proposes a series of skeptical hypotheses, each aimed at determining if we can trust our specific faculties of sense, reason, and imagination. The paper concludes that Descartes method of doubt determines that all that we can truly know is cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am).

From the Paper
"Descartes notes that examining each belief, and determining if it is true "would be truly an endless labor". As such, he argues that it is necessary to attempt to find a principle that can serve as the fundamental basis, or bedrock, for all his beliefs. Descartes argues that examining each individual belief is unnecessary, as well as laborious, given that an examination of his fundamental belief will reveal if all other beliefs, which rest upon it, are true as well. Says Descartes, "as the removal from below of the foundation necessarily involves the downfall of the whole edifice, I will at once approach the criticism of the principles on which all my former beliefs rested" Descartes, Meditations I)."

Tags:principle, sceptical, Argument, from, Dreaming, Evil, Demon

Abstract
This paper discusses the parallel between Andy and Larry Wachowski's movie "The Matrix," in which there are two very different, yet very real worlds, and Book VII from Plato's "The Republic." The paper points out that through the allegory of the cave, Plato explained his theory of reality, proving that what mankind perceived were shadows, products of ideal figures that existed beyond everything. According to Plato, any knowledge gained from the world of senses was flawed and imperfect , while real knowledge was only accomplished via the world of ideas, by means of reason. Plato's allegory emphasizes the two distinct worlds, both outside and inside the cave. The paper asserts that the common thread between "The Matrix" and this cave allegory is that both examine the duality of knowledge and ignorance, of reality and perception. The paper claims that in the matrix allegory, our lives are like computerized programs, in which all that we have, think and possess does not exist. The paper concludes that true reality remains outside and, with the help of a good master, someday we might reach it.

From the Paper
"According to Plato's perspective, in the beginning of life, the human soul lacks knowledge. When man is inside the cave, he is ignorant of passion, fear and prejudice. In the first phase, the shadows of the cave are the vague ideas that we have of ourselves. Neo, the principal character of "The Matrix," takes a pill that transports him inside the Matrix where he discovers the fictitious world in which he was living. Neo learns that the memories of his life were merely the vague ideas that he had of himself, and he questions what is real and unreal at one moment in time. For example, right before entering a restaurant that claimed it had the best pasta dishes, Neo ate a white pasta in the spacecraft that could have been any type of food. In this manner, the ideas that Neo had about this false fictitious world, the Matrix, echo that of the prisoners in the cave of The Republic. This place in which common people live--where human beings exist until they acquire knowledge--is difficult to comprehend. Even Neo could not fully grasp the nature of his false universe until Morfeo helped him to understand everything that was going on around him."

Tags:reality, illusion, cave, allegory, shadow, idea, ideal

Abstract
This paper examines the various characteristics that separate man from animals specifically the trait of rationality.

From the Paper
"Seeing things from the philosophical point of view, according to philosopher John Stuart Mill, rationality is summed up into having five qualifications: #1. Deduction: example: All seagulls are white. (major premise) This bird is black. (minor premise) Therefore this bird is not a seagull. (conclusion) #2. Induction: example: From particulars, we go to universals; example: After putting my hands in the fire a lot of times, I concluded fire burns. #3. Comparison: example: We compare and contrast then conclude something, we generalize. #4. Goals / Ends: example: Substantive rationality, we think and plan for future wants and needs. #5. Means / Tools: example: Instrumental rationality, we use means for an end. John Stuart Mill also broke down man as a person into having six distinctive qualities. #1. Personality, #2. conscience, #3. rationality, #4. feelings, #5. love, and #6. knowledge."

Tags:comparison, deduction, ends, john, means, mills, minor, personality, philosophy, premise, stuart

Abstract
The paper discusses philosopher David Hume's argument that there cannot be any genuine knowledge of the world other than what we are perceiving at that very moment. Hume argues that ideas are present in the mind and while they are produced by reality, they are copies of reality and not reality itself. The paper analyzes Hume's opinion that knowledge is a product of the mind and non-existent in the outer world.

From the Paper
"Hume begins by noting that "all reasoning concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of cause and effect" (Hume 458). Hume then rejects cause and effect as an explanation for matters of fact. As Hume says, "Let an object be presented to a man of ever so strong natural reason and abilities; he will not be able, by the most accurate examination of its sensible qualities, to discover any of its causes or effects" (Hume 459). Cause and effect then, has its basis in past experience and cannot be arrived at in any other way. Thus, reason is not enough to determine a cause and effect, experience must also be used. Cause and effect then, is not a theory that offers an explanation of how knowledge can exist outside of the mind. Hume argues instead that repeated experience gives us "habit" so that if we see one thing, we automatically associate it with another, and in this way we come to understand things without experiencing them."

Tags:memory, thoughts, ideas, impressions

From the Paper
"In Epistemology: Becoming Intellectually Virtuous W. Jay Wood defines epistemology as "that branch of philosophy dedicated to reflecting on our lives as intellectual beings" (p. 10). In his first chapter he shows how the questions raised by epistemology are of vital importance in everyday life. Epistemological questions cover a great deal of ground including such areas as how beliefs are acquired, whether beliefs are true, whether a belief is rational, or if a belief should be reconsidered in the light of criticism. In fact nearly every question related to acquiring and maintaining beliefs comes under the purview of epistemology--including the sources of knowledge itself ranging from the evidence of the senses to "whatever faculties of understanding we may have that allow us to grasp truths independently of sense experiences" (p. 15)."

Tags:book, report, non-fiction

Abstract
The following paper discusses and gives examples of how new ideas and knowledge are offered to public consciousness and that they are in turn either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgment is chosen, makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change and how radical we will allow any changes to be. This paper distinguishes between different kinds of knowledge: Medical (scientific knowledge), Religious knowledge, Political ideologies and Social Science theories.

From the Paper
"Medical knowledge is an area which appears to be constantly advancing and changing, new ideas are regularly offered to the public consciousness to be either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgment is chosen makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change, how radical we will allow any changes to be and whose theories and evidence mass society is willing to accept. An example of this is Alternative Medicine, although it is more accepted now than in previous years like, aromatherapy massage which is now actively promoted by mainstream health professionals as a complimentary therapy during pregnancy and treatment of bad backs, we even have a small number of practitioners qualified in alternative therapies, like homeopathy, scientists have even remarked in the age old profession of palmistry being very accurate in the diagnosis of certain illnesses, the setting up of The Royal Society in 1662 emphasized the 'expert knowledge' camaraderie between so-called experts over common sense knowledge. 'Expert knowledge' was historically endorsed and distributed by middle and upper class male establishments like the Royal Society which was founded by Charles II and allowed male members only and women were only allowed to qualify in Medicine in 1876. This male superiority increased authority to this group in society; their medical knowledge trusted and officially endorsed which in turn dismissed female 'common sense' knowledge."

Tags:certainties, knowledge, science, social, sociology, advancing, changing, consciousness, public, opinion, fact, israel, death, sudden, syndrome

Abstract
This paper begins by stating the argument Descartes gives for a version of mind/body dualism. It then considers two objections to Descartes' argument and finally assesses the validity of Descartes' argument in light of those objections.

From the Paper
"Much of the intellectual history of psychology as well as philosophy has involved the attempt to come to grips with a dilemma of mind and body. This dilemma was eventually broken into main two opposing views: one view (dualism) proposes that our universe contains two very different and equally fundamental types of entity: mental/spiritual and physical/material items. Most followers of this view hold that human mind (or soul) is to survive the annihilation of the body. The contrasting view, materialism, on the other hand, affirms that everything in our universe is composed of mass-energy, minds and bodies included."

Tags:philosophy, soul, energy

Abstract
This paper explains that the nature-nurture controversy is the continuing debate over whether the individual's various traits and characteristics are influenced more by inborn factors, or nature, or by cultural influences and other aspects of experience, or nurture. The author points out that, today, scientists view human development as a combination of nature and nurture, while the British philosopher, John Locke, in the 1690s, suggested that the human infant is like a blank slate, or "tabula rasa", on which experience in the form of human learning writes messages on the infant's unformed mind. The paper relates that Sigmund Freud's theory of development states that human development is the product of both internal urges and external conditions, particularly children's sexual and aggressive urges, and how parents handle them.

From the Paper
"Many professions have solicited the assistance of psychologists in trying to predetermine the psyche of potential persons for areas such as employment and placement. The legal profession has sought out psychologists on both sides to prove their theories of the mental abilities, behavior explanations or predictions of behavior of a defendant or plaintiff. "Society has let the pendulum swing wildly back from nurture to nature, leaving behind a number of bewildered social scientist. Yet we still love to phrase everything in terms of one influence or the other, rather than both." In the educational profession, understanding the balance or affect of both nature and nurture is essential to designing an effective plan for each pupil's advancement."

Tags:Piaget, freud, locke, erickson, watson

Abstract
This paper explains that the movie "The Matrix" is a whirlwind of philosophical questions, concepts and thoughts; the greatest of these questions and a fundamental question of all time is "to know or not to know" which is presented in "The Matrix" as, "Which one, the red (knowledge) or the blue (ignorance) pill?" The author points out that this philosophical argument regarding the knowledge of a new reality goes back to Plato's "Myth of the Cave". The paper concludes that knowledge and truth are the two most sought after materials in the world; therefore, the vast majority of people would like to know the answers to life's most asked questions and, being outside the matrix, would choose the red pill as the only way to get them.

From the Paper
"Because they do not know anything outsides the "cave", people are happy being prisoners; however, it is evident through Neo and the freed prisoner in Plato's "Myth of the Cave", that once given a taste of the red pill or informed of its existence, one will rarely ever choose the blue pill instead. The red pill offers an escape from the darkness illustrated in the Myth of the Cave and from the dream world of the movie "The Matrix" and, in turn, broadens the boundaries of life, changes the life's rules, opens new doors and presents prospects of great adventure. The red pill in opening one's eyes to a complete new reality is therefore, unmistakably more appealing."

Tags:choice, knowledge, ignorance, plato, reality